Establishing the Community in Madinah

The arrival of Muhammad ﷺ in Madinah marked the beginning of a new phase in the history of Islam.

For the first time, the Muslims were able to practise their religion openly under the leadership of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ. Yet the new community faced significant challenges.

The Muhājirūn had left behind almost everything in Makkah.

Many had abandoned their homes, businesses, wealth and property solely for the sake of Allah. Some had arrived in Madinah with little more than the clothes they wore.

The Anṣār, by contrast, possessed homes, farmland and established livelihoods.

If these two groups were to become one united community, the old tribal loyalties that had dominated Arabian society would have to be replaced by a stronger bond founded upon faith.

Brotherhood Founded Upon Faith

One of the first major steps taken by Muhammad ﷺ after settling in Madinah was to establish a formal bond of brotherhood between the Muhājirūn and the Anṣār.

According to the earliest Sīrah sources, the Prophet ﷺ paired individual emigrants from Makkah with individual believers from Madinah.

This relationship was far more than a symbolic gesture.

Each pair regarded one another as brothers in faith, supporting each other emotionally, socially and economically.

The arrangement eased the hardship experienced by those who had left everything behind and strengthened the unity of the growing Muslim community.

The Prophet ﷺ taught that the bond created through belief in Allah was stronger than tribal lineage, race or social status.

For a society accustomed to measuring honour through ancestry and tribal affiliation, this represented a profound transformation.

The Sacrifice of the Anṣār

The generosity displayed by the Anṣār became one of the defining characteristics of the early Muslim community.

The Qur'an later praised their remarkable selflessness.

Allah says:

"And those who had settled in the city and embraced the faith before them love those who migrated to them. They find no desire in their hearts for what has been given to the emigrants, but give them preference over themselves even though they themselves are in need. Whoever is protected from the greed of his own soul—it is they who are the successful."

Qur'an 59:9

The Anṣār welcomed the Muhājirūn into their homes without hesitation.

Many offered half of their wealth to their new brothers.

Others shared their farms, businesses and possessions.

These acts were not performed under compulsion.

They arose from sincere faith and love for Allah and His Messenger ﷺ.

ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf and Saʿd ibn al-Rabīʿ رضي الله عنهما

Among the best-known examples of this brotherhood is the relationship established between ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf رضي الله عنه, one of the emigrants from Makkah, and Saʿd ibn al-Rabīʿ رضي الله عنه from the Anṣār.

According to Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 2048 and 3781), Saʿd said to his new brother:

"I am among the wealthiest of the Anṣār. I shall divide my wealth equally between us. I also have two wives. Look at them, and whichever you prefer, I shall divorce her. When her waiting period is complete, you may marry her."

This extraordinary offer reflected the sincerity of the brotherhood established by the Prophet ﷺ.

However, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān politely declined.

Instead, he replied:

"May Allah bless your family and your wealth. Simply show me where the marketplace is."

Rather than depending upon the generosity of others, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān chose to earn his own livelihood through honest trade.

He soon began buying and selling in the marketplace.

According to the authentic narrations, before long Allah blessed his business, and he became one of the wealthiest Companions of the Prophet ﷺ.

His response demonstrates another important principle established by the Prophet ﷺ.

While Muslims are encouraged to assist one another generously, those receiving assistance should strive for independence whenever they are able.

A New Society

The system of brotherhood established by Muhammad ﷺ achieved far more than meeting immediate material needs.

It removed long-standing distinctions between the people of Makkah and Madinah.

The Muhājirūn no longer regarded themselves as strangers.

The Anṣār no longer regarded the emigrants as outsiders.

Together they became one Ummah united by faith in Allah.

This brotherhood laid the social foundation upon which the Islamic community would be built.

It demonstrated that Islam sought to unite people through shared belief, mutual responsibility and compassion rather than through tribal identity or worldly status.

The practical effects of this new relationship soon became evident as the Messenger of Allah ﷺ continued establishing the institutions that would shape the first Muslim society.

A Brotherhood Unlike Any Tribal Alliance

The brotherhood established by Muhammad ﷺ was unprecedented in Arabian society.

Before Islam, a person's strongest loyalty was to his own tribe and blood relatives.

Protection, inheritance, military support and social standing were all determined by lineage.

The Prophet ﷺ replaced this centuries-old system with a community founded upon faith.

The Muhājirūn and the Anṣār came from different tribes, regions and social backgrounds, yet they were instructed to regard one another as brothers for the sake of Allah.

This transformation was one of the earliest and most visible demonstrations that Islam was creating a new society governed by principles rather than tribal customs.

The Qur'an repeatedly emphasised that the true bond uniting believers was faith.

Allah says:

"The believers are but brothers, so make peace between your brothers, and fear Allah so that you may receive mercy."

Qur'an 49:10

The Prophet ﷺ also reinforced this principle through his teachings and personal example.

According to Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 2442) and Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 2580), he said:

"A Muslim is the brother of another Muslim. He does not wrong him, nor abandon him, nor hand him over to his enemy."

This teaching became one of the defining characteristics of the Muslim community.

The Early Legal Effects of the Brotherhood

According to the earliest Sīrah and historical sources, the bond of brotherhood established by the Prophet ﷺ initially carried certain legal consequences in addition to its spiritual and social significance.

During the earliest period in Madinah, some of the paired brothers were permitted to inherit from one another in the absence of their blood relatives.

This temporary arrangement addressed the immediate needs created by the Hijrah, as many of the Muhājirūn had left their families and possessions behind in Makkah.

After the Muslim community became firmly established, Allah revealed the permanent laws of inheritance.

The temporary arrangement was superseded by the Qur'anic legislation that assigned inheritance to blood relatives and other lawful heirs.

Allah says:

"But those related by blood are nearer to one another according to the Book of Allah."

Qur'an 8:75

This development illustrates the gradual manner in which Islamic legislation was revealed.

Certain temporary measures addressed immediate circumstances before being replaced by permanent rulings suitable for the growing Muslim society.

The Marriage of Fāṭimah رضي الله عنها and ʿAlī رضي الله عنه

After ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه proposed to Fāṭimah رضي الله عنها, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ accepted the proposal and married his daughter to him. Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه and ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه had also previously sought Fāṭimah's hand, but the Prophet ﷺ indicated that she was still young. When ʿAlī رضي الله عنه proposed, the marriage was accepted.

The marriage took place in Madinah during the early Madinan period. ʿAlī رضي الله عنه had limited financial means, and the Prophet ﷺ instructed him to provide a bridal gift, asking him about his coat of mail.

The marriage established the household of ʿAlī and Fāṭimah رضي الله عنهما. Their children included al-Ḥasan, al-Ḥusayn, Zaynab and Umm Kulthūm رضي الله عنهم.

The Prophet ﷺ maintained a particularly close relationship with Fāṭimah رضي الله عنها. He stated that Fāṭimah was a part of him and that what caused her distress caused him distress. This was also reflected when he objected to ʿAlī رضي الله عنه taking another wife while married to Fāṭimah, because he regarded causing her harm as causing harm to himself.

   

Mutual Support in Everyday Life

The brotherhood was expressed through practical action rather than words alone.

The Anṣār shared their homes with the emigrants.

They helped them establish businesses, cultivate farmland and integrate into the life of Madinah.

The Muhājirūn, for their part, did not regard themselves as permanent dependants.

Many resumed their former occupations as merchants, craftsmen and labourers.

Others learned new skills or worked alongside their brothers from the Anṣār.

The Prophet ﷺ encouraged productive work and discouraged unnecessary dependence upon others.

This balance created a society characterised by generosity on one side and personal responsibility on the other.

A Community Without Distinction

Muhammad ﷺ consistently rejected every attempt to revive the divisions that had characterised pre-Islamic Arabia.

The distinctions between Quraysh and non-Quraysh, Aws and Khazraj, noble and common, rich and poor were replaced by a single standard.

Allah says:

"O mankind, We created you from a male and a female and made you into peoples and tribes so that you may know one another. Indeed, the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is All-Knowing, All-Aware."

Qur'an 49:13

This principle became the moral foundation of the new Muslim society.

Honour was no longer measured by ancestry, wealth or tribal influence.

Rather, true honour belonged to those who were most conscious of Allah and most faithful in obeying Him.

The transformation was so profound that former slaves stood alongside tribal chiefs in the same rows of prayer, and emigrants who had arrived with nothing became respected members of the community through their faith and character.

Preparing the Foundations of the Islamic State

With the mosque established and the bonds of brotherhood firmly in place, Muhammad ﷺ turned his attention to organising the wider society of Madinah.

The city contained not only Muslims but also Arab tribes that had not accepted Islam and several Jewish tribes who had long been established there.

The Prophet ﷺ therefore introduced a written agreement that defined the rights and responsibilities of the various communities living in Madinah.

This document, known to historians as the Constitution of Madinah, became one of the earliest written constitutional agreements in history and established the framework through which the diverse inhabitants of the city would live together under a common system of justice and mutual responsibility.

Lasting Effects of the Brotherhood

The system of brotherhood established by Muhammad ﷺ produced immediate and lasting results.

The Muhājirūn were no longer isolated refugees who had lost their homes and livelihoods.

The Anṣār no longer regarded them as strangers from another city.

Instead, both groups came to see themselves as members of a single community whose loyalty was first and foremost to Allah and His Messenger ﷺ.

The bitterness that had divided Aws and Khazraj for generations also began to disappear.

Before Islam, the two tribes had fought repeated wars, culminating in the Battle of Buʿāth only a few years before the Hijrah.

Now they prayed together, lived together and defended one another as brothers in faith.

Allah united hearts that had long been divided.

Allah says:

"And remember the favour of Allah upon you when you were enemies and He brought your hearts together, and by His favour you became brothers..."

Qur'an 3:103

The transformation of Madinah stands as one of the clearest examples of the unifying power of Islam during the lifetime of the Prophet ﷺ.

The Muhājirūn Become Self-Sufficient

Although the Anṣār willingly shared their wealth, homes and farms, the Muhājirūn gradually established themselves through their own efforts.

Many resumed their previous occupations as merchants.

Others worked in agriculture, craftsmanship or other trades.

Within a relatively short period, many emigrants had become financially independent.

This strengthened the Muslim community while preserving the dignity of those who had sacrificed everything for the sake of Allah.

The relationship between the Muhājirūn and the Anṣār therefore remained one of genuine brotherhood rather than long-term dependence.

Their mutual support continued throughout the life of the Prophet ﷺ and during the major events that followed.

The Brotherhood in Times of Trial

The true strength of the brotherhood became evident during the years that followed.

Whether facing economic hardship, military campaigns or personal difficulties, the believers stood together.

The Anṣār defended the Muhājirūn as they defended their own families.

The Muhājirūn shared every hardship and danger alongside the Anṣār.

This unity became one of the principal reasons for the remarkable strength of the early Muslim community despite its relatively small numbers.

The Prophet ﷺ continually nurtured this spirit of unity.

He warned against reviving tribal pride and repeatedly reminded the believers that all Muslims formed one Ummah.

Whenever disagreements arose, he reconciled the parties with justice and reminded them of the bond that Allah had established between them.

The Example Set for Future Generations

The brotherhood established in Madinah was not intended only for the first generation of Muslims.

It became a model for every Muslim community that followed.

The Qur'an praises both the Muhājirūn and the Anṣār for their sacrifice and sincerity.

It also praises those believers who came after them and followed their example.

Allah says:

"And those who came after them say, 'Our Lord, forgive us and our brothers who preceded us in faith, and do not place in our hearts any resentment toward those who have believed. Our Lord, indeed You are Most Kind and Most Merciful.'"

Qur'an 59:10

These verses demonstrate that the relationship established between the Muhājirūn and the Anṣār was not merely a historical event.

It became an enduring example of unity, generosity and mutual care for Muslims in every generation.

The Next Step in Establishing the Muslim Community

By this stage, the Messenger of Allah ﷺ had established the essential foundations of the new Muslim society.

The Prophet's Mosque had been built.

The Muhājirūn and the Anṣār had been united through brotherhood.

The emigrants had begun rebuilding their lives.

The believers were now able to worship Allah openly and organise themselves as a community.

Yet Madinah remained home to diverse groups with different religions, tribal loyalties and political interests.

In addition to the Muslims, the city contained several Jewish tribes and Arab clans that had not embraced Islam.

To establish peace, define mutual responsibilities and regulate relations among all the inhabitants, Muhammad ﷺ introduced a written covenant that became known as the Constitution of Madinah.

This document established the legal and political framework of the first Islamic state and remains one of the earliest surviving constitutional agreements in recorded history.

After establishing the mosque and uniting the Muhājirūn and the Anṣār through the bonds of brotherhood, Muhammad ﷺ turned his attention to the wider organisation of Madinah.

Unlike Makkah, Madinah was not inhabited by a single tribe.

It was a diverse city composed of several Arab tribes, Jewish tribes and smaller clans, each possessing its own alliances, customs and interests.

For many years, the city had experienced recurring disputes, particularly between the Arab tribes of Aws and Khazraj.

Although Islam had united many of its inhabitants, not every resident had embraced the new faith.

The stability of the city therefore required an agreement that would regulate the relationships between its different communities and establish a common framework for justice, security and mutual responsibility.

According to the earliest Sīrah sources, Muhammad ﷺ prepared a written covenant that became known as the Constitution of Madinah, the Charter of Madinah or the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah.

It is regarded by many historians as one of the earliest surviving written constitutional agreements in history.

The Need for a Written Covenant

The Hijrah had transformed Madinah into the centre of the growing Muslim community.

The city now included:

• The Muhājirūn who had migrated from Makkah.
• The Muslim members of Aws and Khazraj, collectively known as the Anṣār.
• Arab tribes who had not yet accepted Islam.
• Several Jewish tribes, including Banū Qaynuqāʿ, Banū al-Naḍīr and Banū Qurayẓah.
• Individuals who maintained existing tribal alliances and commercial relationships.

Without a formal agreement, disagreements concerning security, justice and tribal obligations could easily undermine the fragile unity that had begun to develop.

The Constitution therefore established a recognised legal framework accepted by the communities that became parties to it.

The Nature of the Constitution

The Constitution was not a theological document requiring every inhabitant of Madinah to embrace Islam.

Rather, it was a political and legal covenant governing relations among the various communities living within the city.

It defined their mutual rights and responsibilities while recognising that different religious groups would continue practising their own faiths.

The document established principles concerning:

• Collective security.
• Mutual defence.
• Freedom of religion.
• The administration of justice.
• Financial obligations.
• The settlement of disputes.
• Loyalty to the covenant.
• Protection against oppression and treachery.

Although Muhammad ﷺ served as the head of the community, the Constitution recognised the existence of different tribal and religious groups while bringing them together under a single public agreement.

The Muslim Community as One Ummah

The Constitution begins by identifying those who formed the Muslim community.

According to the text preserved by Ibn Isḥāq and transmitted through Ibn Hishām, it declares:

"This is a document from Muhammad the Prophet between the believers and Muslims of the Quraysh and the people of Yathrib, and those who follow them, join them and strive alongside them."

The document then states:

"They are one Ummah to the exclusion of all other people."

This declaration represented a profound change in Arabian society.

Previously, tribal identity determined a person's primary loyalty.

The Constitution established that the believers formed one community united by faith, even though they belonged to different tribes and regions.

The Muhājirūn from Makkah and the Anṣār from Madinah were therefore recognised as members of one Ummah with shared responsibilities.

Respect for Existing Responsibilities

Although the Constitution created a unified community, it did not immediately abolish every existing tribal custom.

Instead, it recognised certain established responsibilities that were consistent with justice.

For example, each clan remained responsible for paying blood money according to established practice and for assisting in the ransom of prisoners where appropriate.

These existing customs were retained because they promoted social responsibility and did not conflict with the principles of Islam.

This illustrates an important aspect of the Prophet's leadership.

Rather than dismantling every social institution overnight, he reformed society gradually, preserving beneficial customs while eliminating practices that contradicted the guidance revealed by Allah.

The Constitution therefore combined continuity with reform, enabling the diverse communities of Madinah to live together under a common system while the new Muslim society continued to develop.

The following sections of the Constitution addressed the rights of the Jewish tribes, mutual defence of the city and the administration of justice among all who were party to the covenant.

The Position of the Jewish Tribes

One of the most significant features of the Constitution of Madinah was its recognition of the Jewish tribes as parties to the covenant.

At the time of the Hijrah, several Jewish tribes had long been established in and around Madinah, the largest being Banū Qaynuqāʿ, Banū al-Naḍīr and Banū Qurayẓah. They possessed their own religious traditions, tribal leadership and economic interests.

The Constitution did not require them to abandon Judaism or embrace Islam.

Instead, it recognised them as members of the wider political community of Madinah while preserving their religious identity.

According to the text preserved in the earliest Sīrah sources, the Constitution states:

"The Jews who follow us shall have help and equality. They shall not be wronged, nor shall their enemies be aided against them."

It further declares:

"The Jews have their religion, and the Muslims have theirs."

This provision established the principle that religious difference alone did not remove a community from the protection of the covenant.

Each community remained free to practise its own religion while sharing responsibility for the peace and security of Madinah.

Mutual Defence

The Constitution recognised that Madinah could be threatened by external enemies.

Accordingly, all parties to the covenant accepted responsibility for defending the city if it came under attack.

The document states that those who entered the covenant would assist one another against any aggressor.

No group was permitted to conclude a separate alliance with an enemy seeking to attack Madinah.

Likewise, no signatory was permitted to provide protection or assistance to those who violated the covenant or sought to undermine the peace of the city.

These provisions created a collective system of security that brought together communities which had previously acted independently.

Although each tribe retained its own internal leadership, all accepted a shared responsibility for the defence of Madinah.

Justice and the Sanctity of Life

The Constitution repeatedly emphasises justice.

It prohibited believers from supporting those who committed oppression or wrongdoing, even if the offender belonged to their own family or tribe.

The document required that justice be administered fairly and that those responsible for crimes be held accountable.

It also affirmed the sanctity of life.

No believer was permitted to kill another believer unlawfully.

Nor could anyone shelter or protect a criminal in order to prevent justice from being carried out.

These provisions represented a significant departure from many pre-Islamic tribal practices, where loyalty to one's clan often outweighed justice.

Under the Constitution, loyalty to truth and justice took precedence over tribal affiliation.

Loyalty to the Covenant

The Constitution required every party to remain faithful to the agreement.

Betrayal of the covenant was regarded as a serious offence because it endangered the security of the entire city.

Those who honoured the covenant were entitled to its protection.

Those who violated it would bear responsibility for the consequences of their actions.

The document also required mutual consultation and cooperation whenever circumstances affecting the security or welfare of Madinah arose.

This encouraged peaceful resolution of disputes rather than the cycles of revenge that had characterised the city's earlier history.

Muhammad ﷺ as the Final Arbiter

One of the most important provisions of the Constitution concerned the resolution of disputes.

The document states that whenever a serious disagreement arose between the parties to the covenant, the matter was to be referred to Allah and to Muhammad ﷺ for judgement.

This recognised the Prophet ﷺ not only as the Messenger of Allah but also as the accepted head of the political community established in Madinah.

His authority was not exercised arbitrarily.

Rather, his judgements were based upon the revelation he received from Allah together with the principles of justice established in Islam.

For the first time in the history of Madinah, disputes between the various tribes and communities could be resolved through a recognised central authority instead of escalating into prolonged tribal conflict.

The Constitution therefore provided the legal framework upon which the first Islamic society would be governed.

Its practical application would soon be tested as the Muslim community faced increasing hostility from the Quraysh and, in time, breaches of the covenant by some of those who had agreed to its terms.

One of the most significant principles established by the Constitution of Madinah was that every party to the covenant was entitled to justice and protection so long as it remained faithful to the agreement.

Rights and responsibilities were determined by the terms of the covenant rather than by tribal strength or political influence.

This represented a profound change from pre-Islamic Arabian society, where powerful tribes often exercised greater authority than weaker clans.

Under the Constitution, all parties were expected to honour their commitments and uphold justice.

No person or tribe was granted permission to oppress another simply because of wealth, lineage or military strength.

Protection of the Oppressed

The Constitution repeatedly emphasised the duty of the community to oppose injustice.

Those who entered the covenant agreed that they would unite against anyone who committed oppression, spread corruption or sought to violate the peace of Madinah.

The document also prohibited giving protection to criminals or assisting those who deliberately broke the covenant.

In this way, responsibility for maintaining justice became a collective obligation shared by the entire community.

This principle reflected the teachings of the Qur'an, which repeatedly commands believers to uphold justice without favouritism.

Allah says:

"O you who believe, stand firmly for justice as witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves, your parents or your close relatives..."

Qur'an 4:135

The Constitution translated this principle into practical governance by making justice the responsibility of every signatory.

Religious Freedom Within the Covenant

The Constitution recognised that Madinah was home to communities of different religious backgrounds.

While Muhammad ﷺ called all people to Islam, those who remained within their own faith were not compelled to abandon their religion in order to participate in the civic life of the city.

The covenant acknowledged the continued existence of the Jewish tribes and affirmed their right to practise their religion while remaining faithful to the obligations they had accepted.

This arrangement distinguished between religious belief and civic responsibility.

Although the Muslim community was founded upon the revelation given by Allah, the political agreement extended protection to those who honoured its terms, regardless of whether they had accepted Islam.

The relationship therefore rested upon mutual loyalty to the covenant rather than forced religious conformity.

Financial Responsibilities

The Constitution also addressed financial obligations connected with the defence and welfare of the city.

Each tribe remained responsible for its own legitimate financial commitments, including established obligations relating to blood money and the ransom of prisoners.

If Madinah faced external aggression, every party to the covenant was expected to contribute towards the common defence according to its ability.

This ensured that the burden of protecting the city did not fall upon one group alone.

Shared responsibility strengthened cooperation and reinforced the understanding that the security of Madinah was a collective duty.

A Unified City

Before the arrival of Muhammad ﷺ, Madinah had often been characterised by shifting alliances and recurring conflict.

The Constitution established, for the first time, a recognised framework under which the city's various communities could live together while maintaining peace and resolving disputes through agreed procedures rather than tribal warfare.

It did not eliminate every difference between the inhabitants.

Each tribe retained its identity, and each religious community retained its own beliefs.

What changed was the basis upon which they related to one another.

The covenant replaced fragmented tribal politics with a shared public order founded upon justice, mutual responsibility and respect for lawful agreements.

The Practical Test

A written constitution, however, is only as effective as the willingness of its signatories to honour it.

During the years that followed, the Constitution of Madinah provided the legal framework through which the city functioned.

Many upheld their obligations faithfully.

Others would later violate the covenant through alliances with the enemies of Madinah and acts of treachery.

Those events would shape many of the major developments in the Madinan period of the Prophet's ﷺ life.

Before those challenges arose, however, the Muslim community would face a different test.

The Quraysh had not accepted the Hijrah as the end of the conflict.

Instead, they continued preparing to destroy the growing Muslim community before it became too strong.

The first stage of that confrontation began with Allah granting the Muslims permission to defend themselves against aggression.

A New Model of Government

The Constitution of Madinah marked the beginning of an organised political community under the leadership of Muhammad ﷺ.

For the first time, the Muslims possessed a recognised legal framework governing relations between the various communities living in the same city.

The Constitution combined religious principles with practical administration.

It recognised existing tribal structures where they served justice, protected the rights of different communities, established mutual defence and provided recognised procedures for resolving disputes.

Rather than ruling through tribal privilege or personal authority, Muhammad ﷺ governed according to the guidance revealed by Allah and the agreements accepted by the people of Madinah.

This approach brought stability to a city that had experienced decades of conflict.

Rights Accompanied by Responsibilities

The Constitution granted protection to every party that remained faithful to the covenant.

At the same time, it made clear that these rights depended upon fulfilling the obligations accepted under the agreement.

Protection was accompanied by responsibility.

Security was accompanied by loyalty.

Justice was accompanied by accountability.

Any individual or community that violated the covenant, assisted the enemies of Madinah or undermined its security became responsible for the consequences of those actions.

This principle would later become important in understanding the Prophet's ﷺ dealings with certain groups who broke their agreements with the Muslim community.

Their subsequent punishment resulted from violations of the covenant itself rather than from their religious identity.

Historical Significance

The Constitution of Madinah occupies an important place in both Islamic and legal history.

It demonstrates that the Prophet ﷺ did not establish the Muslim community solely through spiritual guidance.

He also organised its social, legal and political affairs.

The document illustrates how Islam addressed the practical realities of governing a diverse society composed of multiple tribes and religious communities.

For this reason, many historians regard the Constitution as one of the earliest surviving written constitutional agreements establishing a political community through mutually accepted obligations rather than tribal dominance alone.

Its principles of justice, contractual responsibility, collective security and recognised legal authority influenced the development of the first Islamic state in Madinah.

The Foundation of the Madinan Period

With the mosque established, the bonds of brotherhood formed and the Constitution agreed upon, the essential foundations of the Muslim community had now been laid.

The believers had a place of worship.

They possessed a united community.

They had an agreed legal framework governing relations within the city.

Muhammad ﷺ was now able to devote increasing attention to teaching the Qur'an, strengthening the faith of the believers and preparing the community for the challenges that lay ahead.

Those challenges soon emerged.

The Quraysh had neither forgotten nor forgiven the Muslims for leaving Makkah.

Their trade caravans continued to pass near Madinah, and they remained determined to eliminate Muhammad ﷺ before the new Muslim community could become firmly established.

It was during this period that Allah revealed permission for the Muslims to defend themselves against those who had persecuted and driven them from their homes.

Permission to Fight

For more than thirteen years in Makkah, the Muslims had endured persecution without responding with armed resistance.

They had been instructed to remain patient despite torture, imprisonment, economic boycott and the killing of some of the believers.

After the Hijrah, the circumstances changed.

The Muslims now possessed a community capable of defending itself, while the Quraysh continued threatening their existence.

Allah therefore revealed the first verses granting permission to fight.

Allah says:

"Permission has been given to those who are being fought because they have been wronged. Indeed, Allah is certainly able to grant them victory. They are those who were driven from their homes without right, only because they said, 'Our Lord is Allah.'"

Qur'an 22:39–40

These verses are recognised by the scholars as the first Qur'anic permission for armed struggle.

The permission was not given to compel belief or expand territory.

It was granted because the Muslims had been subjected to prolonged persecution and expelled from their homes solely for believing in Allah.

This marked the beginning of a new phase in the Sīrah.

The Muslim community would now be required not only to worship Allah and establish justice within Madinah but also to defend itself against those determined to destroy it.

With the foundations of the Muslim community firmly established in Madinah, a new phase of the Prophet's mission began.

For the first time, the Muslims possessed a secure home from which they could organise their affairs and practise their religion openly. Nevertheless, the threat posed by the Quraysh remained constant.

The leaders of Makkah had expelled the Muslims from their homes, confiscated much of their property and continued to encourage the Arab tribes to oppose Muhammad ﷺ. They regarded the growing Muslim community in Madinah as a direct challenge to their political influence and commercial interests.

Following Allah's permission to defend themselves, the Prophet ﷺ began sending a number of small expeditions and patrols. These took place before the Battle of Badr and formed part of a broader strategy to safeguard Madinah, gather intelligence and demonstrate that the Muslims would no longer remain defenceless.

The Purpose of the Early Expeditions

The early expeditions were limited in size and carefully planned.

They were not campaigns of conquest.

Rather, they served several important purposes.

The Prophet ﷺ sought to:

• Monitor the movements of the Quraysh.
• Establish alliances with neighbouring tribes.
• Protect the approaches to Madinah.
• Gather intelligence concerning potential threats.
• Demonstrate that the Muslims could defend themselves if attacked.
• Place economic pressure upon the Quraysh, whose trade caravans relied upon routes passing near Madinah.

The wealth of many Quraysh merchants had been accumulated, in part, through property taken from the Muhājirūn after they had been forced to leave Makkah.

The caravans therefore became legitimate military targets within the ongoing conflict between the two communities.

The Difference Between a Ghazwah and a Sariyyah

The early sources distinguish between two types of military expeditions.

A Ghazwah refers to an expedition in which Muhammad ﷺ personally took part, regardless of whether fighting occurred.

A Sariyyah refers to an expedition that the Prophet ﷺ organised but in which he did not personally participate, appointing one of his Companions as commander.

Many of these expeditions concluded without combat.

Their primary objectives were reconnaissance, diplomacy, alliance-building or the protection of trade routes.

The First Expedition: Sariyyah of Ḥamzah ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib رضي الله عنه

According to the earliest Sīrah sources, the first military expedition organised by the Prophet ﷺ took place during the month of Ramaḍān in the first year after the Hijrah.

Muhammad ﷺ appointed his uncle, Ḥamzah ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib رضي الله عنه, to command a force of approximately thirty Muhājirūn.

Their mission was to intercept a large Quraysh caravan returning from Syria under the leadership of Abū Jahl.

The Muslim force encountered the caravan near the Red Sea coast at a place known as Sīf al-Baḥr.

The Quraysh caravan was protected by approximately three hundred armed men, giving them a substantial numerical advantage.

Before fighting could begin, Majdī ibn ʿAmr al-Juhanī, who maintained friendly relations with both sides, intervened and persuaded them to withdraw peacefully.

As a result, no battle took place.

Although no combat occurred, the expedition demonstrated that the Muslims were now capable of operating beyond Madinah and monitoring Quraysh movements.

The Expedition of ʿUbaydah ibn al-Ḥārith رضي الله عنه

Soon afterwards, the Prophet ﷺ dispatched another expedition under the command of ʿUbaydah ibn al-Ḥārith ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib رضي الله عنه, one of his close relatives.

This force consisted of approximately sixty Muhājirūn.

According to the Sīrah, they encountered another Quraysh caravan commanded by Abū Sufyān near Rābigh.

The two groups faced one another, but once again no full-scale battle occurred.

According to the early reports, Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ رضي الله عنه fired an arrow towards the Quraysh.

The historians commonly identify this as the first arrow shot by a Muslim in the cause of Allah.

The two forces then withdrew without further fighting.

Although brief, these early expeditions demonstrated that the period during which the Quraysh could persecute the Muslims without resistance had come to an end.

The Expedition of Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ رضي الله عنه

Not long after the expedition led by ʿUbaydah ibn al-Ḥārith رضي الله عنه, Muhammad ﷺ dispatched another small force under the command of Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ رضي الله عنه.

According to the earliest Sīrah sources, the expedition consisted of approximately twenty Muhājirūn.

The Prophet ﷺ instructed them to travel secretly, moving mainly at night in order to avoid detection.

Their objective was to gather intelligence and intercept a Quraysh caravan if the opportunity arose.

The expedition reached the area of al-Kharrār, but the caravan had already passed the location before the Muslims arrived.

No engagement took place, and the force returned safely to Madinah.

Although the mission did not result in combat, it provided valuable experience in reconnaissance, movement across the desert and military organisation.

The Expedition of al-Abwā' (Waddān)

The first expedition personally led by Muhammad ﷺ is known as the Expedition of al-Abwā', also referred to as Waddān.

According to the earliest Sīrah sources, this took place in Ṣafar during the second year after the Hijrah.

The Prophet ﷺ appointed Saʿd ibn ʿUbādah رضي الله عنه to oversee affairs in Madinah during his absence.

Accompanied by approximately seventy Muhājirūn, Muhammad ﷺ travelled towards Waddān with the intention of monitoring a Quraysh caravan and strengthening the security of the routes leading to Madinah.

The caravan was not encountered.

Instead, the Prophet ﷺ concluded a treaty with Banū Ḍamrah, a tribe living in the region.

The agreement established peaceful relations and mutual non-aggression between the Muslims and Banū Ḍamrah.

This treaty strengthened the security of Madinah's western approaches and demonstrated that the Prophet ﷺ combined diplomacy with military preparedness.

The Expedition of Buwāṭ

In Rabīʿ al-Awwal of the second year after the Hijrah, Muhammad ﷺ personally led another expedition, this time towards Buwāṭ.

According to the Sīrah, intelligence had reached Madinah that a major Quraysh caravan, led by Umayyah ibn Khalaf, was travelling from Syria with approximately one hundred men and a large number of camels carrying merchandise.

The Prophet ﷺ set out with around two hundred Companions in the hope of intercepting the caravan.

By the time the Muslims reached Buwāṭ, however, the caravan had altered its route and escaped.

No fighting occurred.

The expedition nevertheless demonstrated that the Muslims were actively monitoring the trade routes upon which the Quraysh depended.

The Expedition of al-ʿUshayrah

Later, in Jumādā al-Ūlā of the second year after the Hijrah, Muhammad ﷺ personally led another expedition towards al-ʿUshayrah, an area situated in the valley of Yanbuʿ.

The objective was to intercept another Quraysh caravan travelling under the leadership of Abū Sufyān.

When the Muslims arrived, they discovered that the caravan had already passed several days earlier.

Although the immediate objective was not achieved, the Prophet ﷺ remained in the area for several days.

During this time he concluded another treaty, this time with Banū Mudlij and their allies.

These agreements further strengthened relations with neighbouring tribes and reduced the likelihood that hostile forces could approach Madinah from the west.

Preparing the Muslim Community

None of these expeditions developed into major battles.

Some critics have questioned why Muhammad ﷺ repeatedly set out against Quraysh caravans.

The historical context is important.

The Quraysh had expelled the Muslims from Makkah, seized much of their property, threatened the security of Madinah and continued preparing for armed conflict.

The caravans represented both the principal source of Quraysh wealth and an important means of financing their continuing hostility towards the Muslims.

These expeditions therefore formed part of an ongoing state of conflict rather than isolated attacks upon peaceful merchants.

At the same time, the Prophet ﷺ consistently demonstrated a preference for peaceful agreements wherever they could be achieved.

The treaties concluded with neighbouring tribes during these expeditions illustrate that diplomacy remained an essential part of his strategy.

The period of reconnaissance and limited expeditions was drawing to a close.

Soon, events surrounding one of Abū Sufyān's caravans would lead directly to the first major battle between the Muslims and the Quraysh—the Battle of Badr.

The Expedition of Nakhlah

One of the most significant expeditions before the Battle of Badr was the Expedition of Nakhlah.

Unlike the earlier patrols and reconnaissance missions, this expedition resulted in the first bloodshed between the Muslims and the Quraysh after the Hijrah.

It also gave rise to an important Qur'anic revelation concerning warfare during the sacred months.

According to the earliest Sīrah sources, Muhammad ﷺ appointed ʿAbdullāh ibn Jaḥsh رضي الله عنه to lead a small expedition consisting of eight Muhājirūn.

Before their departure, the Prophet ﷺ handed him a sealed letter and instructed him not to open it until the expedition had travelled for two days.

This ensured that the destination and objective remained known only to the commander until the force was safely away from Madinah.

The Prophet's Instructions

After travelling for two days, ʿAbdullāh ibn Jaḥsh opened the letter.

It instructed him to proceed to the valley of Nakhlah, situated between Makkah and Ṭā'if, and to observe the movements of the Quraysh.

According to the Sīrah, the Prophet ﷺ also instructed him that no member of the expedition was to be compelled to continue.

Those who wished to proceed were free to do so, while anyone who preferred to return could do so without blame.

Every member of the expedition chose to continue.

This illustrates that participation in the mission was voluntary rather than compulsory.

The Encounter at Nakhlah

Upon reaching Nakhlah, the Muslims observed a small Quraysh caravan carrying trade goods.

The caravan included:

• ʿAmr ibn al-Ḥaḍramī
• ʿUthmān ibn ʿAbdullāh
• Nawfal ibn ʿAbdullāh
• al-Ḥakam ibn Kaysān

The expedition now faced an unexpected dilemma.

The encounter occurred at the end of Rajab, one of the sacred months during which fighting had traditionally been prohibited among the Arabs.

Some members believed that Rajab had already ended.

Others feared that if they delayed, the caravan would enter the sanctuary of Makkah, where it could no longer be intercepted.

After discussing the matter among themselves, they decided to attack.

During the encounter, ʿAmr ibn al-Ḥaḍramī was killed.

ʿUthmān ibn ʿAbdullāh and al-Ḥakam ibn Kaysān were taken prisoner.

Nawfal ibn ʿAbdullāh escaped.

The Muslims seized the caravan and returned to Madinah.

The Prophet's Response

When the expedition arrived, Muhammad ﷺ did not express approval of what had occurred.

According to the earliest Sīrah, he said:

"I did not command you to fight during the sacred month."

The Prophet ﷺ refused to take possession of the captured goods until Allah revealed guidance concerning the matter.

The Muslims themselves were deeply concerned.

They feared that they had committed a serious error by engaging in combat during one of the sacred months.

The Quraysh quickly used the incident for propaganda, accusing the Muslims of violating long-established Arabian customs.

The Qur'anic Revelation

Allah then revealed the following verse:

"They ask you about fighting during the sacred month. Say, 'Fighting in it is a serious matter. But preventing people from the path of Allah, disbelieving in Him, preventing access to Al-Masjid al-Ḥarām and expelling its people from it are even more serious in the sight of Allah. And persecution is worse than killing...'

Qur'an 2:217

The verse acknowledged that fighting during a sacred month was indeed a serious matter.

At the same time, it reminded the Quraysh that their own actions had been far more severe.

For years they had persecuted the believers, prevented people from worshipping Allah freely, driven the Muslims from their homes and continued seeking their destruction.

The revelation therefore placed the incident within its proper historical context rather than allowing the Quraysh to present themselves as defenders of justice.

The Acceptance of al-Ḥakam ibn Kaysān

One of the prisoners, al-Ḥakam ibn Kaysān, remained in Madinah after his capture.

During this time he learned about Islam, embraced the faith and later became a devoted Muslim.

According to the Sīrah, he eventually attained martyrdom during the Expedition of Bi'r Maʿūnah.

His acceptance of Islam illustrates that even an event which initially caused concern among the Muslims ultimately resulted in guidance for some who had formerly opposed them.

The Expedition of Nakhlah also marked an important transition.

The period of limited reconnaissance missions had ended.

Within a short time, a far larger Quraysh caravan under the leadership of Abū Sufyān would leave Syria for Makkah.

Its return journey would lead directly to one of the most decisive events in Islamic history—the Battle of Badr.

The conflict between Makkah and Madinah was steadily moving towards a decisive confrontation.

The Return of Abū Sufyān's Caravan

During the second year after the Hijrah, intelligence reached Madinah that a major Quraysh trading caravan was returning from Syria under the leadership of Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb.

According to the earliest Sīrah sources, the caravan represented one of the largest commercial expeditions organised by the Quraysh.

It carried merchandise belonging to many of the leading families of Makkah.

The profits from these caravans formed the foundation of the Quraysh economy and financed much of their political and military influence throughout Arabia.

Many of the Muhājirūn also regarded the caravan as carrying wealth that had been accumulated, in part, through property taken from them after they had been forced to leave Makkah.

The Prophet's Decision

Muhammad ﷺ informed the Muslims that the caravan would soon pass near Madinah.

Unlike later military campaigns, participation was not made compulsory.

According to the Sīrah, the Prophet ﷺ announced the movement of the caravan and invited those who were prepared to accompany him.

Because the objective was to intercept a trading caravan rather than engage in a major battle, many Muslims did not expect a large military confrontation.

Some remained behind in Madinah, believing that the expedition would resemble the earlier patrols that had ended without fighting.

Those who accompanied the Prophet ﷺ therefore travelled with relatively light equipment and limited provisions.

The Muslim force numbered approximately 313 men, with only a small number of horses and around seventy camels that had to be shared among the travellers.

No one anticipated that they would soon face one of the largest armies the Quraysh had ever assembled.

Abū Sufyān Learns of the Muslims

Abū Sufyān was an experienced merchant who understood the importance of protecting the caravan.

As he approached the region near Madinah, he received reports that Muhammad ﷺ might attempt to intercept it.

According to the earliest Sīrah, he immediately increased his precautions.

He questioned travellers along the route, gathered intelligence and altered the caravan's movements whenever necessary.

He also hired Ḍamḍam ibn ʿAmr al-Ghifārī to ride to Makkah as quickly as possible and request military assistance.

Ḍamḍam travelled with great urgency.

According to the Sīrah, he deliberately cut the ears and nose of his camel, tore his clothing and cried aloud as he entered Makkah to attract immediate attention.

He shouted that the caravan was in danger and called upon the Quraysh to rescue their wealth before it fell into the hands of Muhammad ﷺ and his followers.

The Quraysh Mobilise

The message caused great alarm throughout Makkah.

Almost every leading clan of the Quraysh prepared for war.

According to the earliest Sīrah, approximately one thousand men assembled.

They were equipped with around one hundred horses, numerous camels and substantial supplies.

Among those who joined the expedition were many of the strongest opponents of Islam, including Abū Jahl, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, Utbah ibn Rabīʿah and Shaybah ibn Rabīʿah.

Only a small number of prominent leaders remained behind.

The Quraysh were determined not merely to rescue the caravan but to demonstrate their military superiority and bring an end to the growing Muslim community in Madinah.

The Caravan Escapes

While the Quraysh army advanced northwards, Abū Sufyān continued gathering information.

Realising that the Muslims were nearby, he diverted the caravan towards the coastal route, successfully avoiding the Prophet ﷺ and his companions.

Once the danger had passed, he sent a message to the approaching Quraysh army informing them that the caravan was now safe and that there was no longer any need to continue.

Several leaders suggested that the army should return to Makkah.

However, Abū Jahl strongly opposed the idea.

According to the Sīrah, he declared that the Quraysh would continue to Badr, remain there for several days, slaughter camels, hold a great feast and demonstrate their power before all the tribes of Arabia.

His pride and determination ensured that the army continued its march.

What had begun as an expedition to protect a caravan was now becoming an unavoidable military confrontation.

The Road to Badr

Muhammad ﷺ had set out expecting to intercept a caravan.

The Quraysh had marched to protect it.

Now the caravan had escaped, yet the Quraysh army continued advancing.

The Muslims found themselves facing an enemy force more than three times their number.

At this critical moment, the Prophet ﷺ gathered his Companions and consulted them regarding the course of action.

The decisions made during that consultation would lead directly to one of the most decisive battles in Islamic history.

The Battle of Badr would become the first major military victory of the Muslims and a turning point in the history of Islam.

The Obligation of Fasting Ramaḍān

In the second year after the Hijrah, Allah revealed the obligation of fasting during the month of Ramaḍān. Fasting became an obligatory act of worship for the Muslim community and formed one of the Five Pillars of Islam.

"O believers! Fasting is prescribed for you—as it was for those before you—so that you may become mindful of Allah."

Qur'an 2:183

Allah then explained that Ramaḍān is the month in which the Qur'an was revealed and established the obligation to fast for those who are present during the month, while providing exemptions for the sick and travellers.

"Ramaḍān is the month in which the Qur'an was revealed, a guide for humanity with clear proofs of guidance and the decisive authority. So whoever is present this month, let them fast."

Qur'an 2:185

The revelation established fasting Ramaḍān as a communal religious obligation and provided concessions for those unable to fast because of illness or travel. The obligation became an important part of the religious and social life of the growing Muslim community in Madinah.