Hunayn, Tabuk and the Year of Delegations

The Gathering of Hawāzin and Thaqīf

The peaceful conquest of Makkah marked one of the greatest turning points in Arabian history. With Quraysh now having accepted Islam and the Sacred House restored to the worship of Allah alone, the balance of power throughout the peninsula changed dramatically. Tribes that had remained neutral or uncertain now recognised that the Muslim community had become the dominant political and religious force in the Ḥijāz.

Not every tribe welcomed this development.

Among those who viewed the conquest with deep concern were Hawāzin and Thaqīf. Hawāzin was one of the largest tribal confederations in Arabia, while Thaqīf occupied the prosperous and heavily fortified city of al-Ṭāʾif. Both feared that if they delayed action, the growing influence of Islam would soon extend into their own territories.

The leader chosen to command their coalition was Mālik ibn ʿAwf al-Naṣrī. Although relatively young, Mālik possessed considerable determination and believed that the best opportunity to defeat the Muslims was before they had fully consolidated their authority following the conquest of Makkah.

He therefore called upon Hawāzin, Thaqīf and several allied tribes, including Naṣr, Jusham and Saʿd ibn Bakr, to assemble a united force.

According to the early Sīrah sources, Mālik adopted an unusual military strategy.

He instructed the warriors to bring with them their wives, children, livestock and much of their wealth.

His reasoning was that, with their families and possessions behind them, the men would have no thought of retreat and would instead fight to the end.

His decision was challenged by Durayd ibn al-Ṣimmah, one of the most experienced military leaders in Arabia.

Durayd was an elderly warrior whose reputation had been established long before the advent of Islam. Although advanced in age and no longer physically able to fight, he remained highly respected for his strategic judgement.

When he learned that the army had brought its families and livestock to the battlefield, he strongly criticised the plan.

He argued that women, children and property did not contribute to victory. If the army were victorious, they could be brought afterwards. If the army were defeated, however, their families and wealth would inevitably fall into enemy hands, turning defeat into catastrophe.

Durayd advised Mālik to send the non-combatants back to safety and allow only the fighting men to face the Muslims.

Mālik rejected the advice.

Confident in his own judgement, he insisted that the plan remain unchanged.

The coalition then advanced towards the valley of Ḥunayn, situated between Makkah and al-Ṭāʾif. Mālik selected the valley carefully. Its narrow approaches, steep hillsides and concealed ravines offered ideal ground from which to launch a surprise attack upon an advancing army.

Meanwhile, news of the mobilisation reached the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ in Makkah.

Recognising the seriousness of the threat, he ordered the Muslims to prepare immediately.

The army that assembled numbered approximately twelve thousand men—around ten thousand who had accompanied the Prophet ﷺ from Madinah during the conquest of Makkah, together with approximately two thousand of the newly converted Quraysh who had joined the Muslim ranks after the conquest.

It was the largest Muslim army ever assembled during the Prophet's lifetime.

Seeing their unprecedented numbers, some among the Muslims remarked that they could not be defeated because of their numerical strength. 

The Ambush at Dawn

The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ led the Muslim army out of Makkah towards the valley of Ḥunayn. As the force approached the valley before dawn, the terrain narrowed into a winding pass bordered by steep hills and rocky slopes. Unknown to the Muslims, Mālik ibn ʿAwf had already deployed his warriors in concealed positions overlooking the valley.

During the night, the coalition forces had hidden themselves among the ravines, behind large rocks and within the natural folds of the landscape. They had been instructed to remain completely silent until the Muslim army had entered the valley in sufficient numbers. Only then would the signal be given to attack from every direction simultaneously.

The Prophet ﷺ organised the army for the advance, with Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه commanding the forward elements. The main body followed behind the Prophet ﷺ as the Muslims descended into the valley in the early morning darkness.

As the leading ranks entered the narrow pass, the signal to attack was given.

A concentrated volley of arrows rained down from the surrounding hillsides.

Almost immediately, the concealed warriors of Hawāzin and Thaqīf charged from their positions, attacking the Muslims from several directions at once.

The suddenness of the assault created confusion within the advancing columns. The restricted terrain prevented the Muslims from deploying their full strength, while the darkness of the early morning made it difficult to identify the source of the attack.

Many of the newly converted Makkans, who had only recently joined the Muslim army and had little experience fighting alongside the Prophet ﷺ, were startled by the unexpected ambush. As the front ranks fell back, the movement spread through parts of the army, and a number of soldiers began retreating from the valley.

The Qur'an later described this critical moment:

"Allah has already given you victory in many places and on the Day of Ḥunayn, when your great number pleased you, but it did not avail you at all. The earth, vast as it is, became constricted for you, and you turned back in retreat."

Qur'an 9:25

Despite the confusion around him, the Prophet ﷺ remained completely steadfast.

Mounted upon his white mule, he neither fled nor sought shelter. A small group of devoted Companions remained at his side, including Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, al-Faḍl ibn al-ʿAbbās, Abū Sufyān ibn al-Ḥārith, Usāmah ibn Zayd, Ayman ibn ʿUbayd and others رضي الله عنهم.

Amid the turmoil, the Prophet ﷺ proclaimed with complete certainty:

"I am the Prophet; this is no falsehood. I am the son of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib."

Recognising that many of the believers had become separated in the confusion, the Prophet ﷺ instructed his uncle al-ʿAbbās, whose powerful voice was renowned among the Arabs, to call them back.

Standing where his voice could carry across the valley, al-ʿAbbās called out to the Muhājirūn and the Anṣār:

"O Companions of the Tree! O Companions of Sūrat al-Baqarah!"

His voice echoed through the valley.  

The Muslims Regroup and Victory is Granted

As the voice of al-ʿAbbās رضي الله عنه echoed across the valley, the Muhājirūn and the Anṣār immediately recognised the call. Those who had been separated during the confusion began turning back towards the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

Many later recalled that, upon hearing the summons, they responded without hesitation, urging their mounts back towards the battlefield. Some whose camels could not turn quickly enough dismounted and ran on foot towards the Prophet ﷺ in their determination to rejoin him.

Within a short time, a disciplined core of believers had gathered once again around the Prophet ﷺ.

The retreat had been halted.

The Muslims now began advancing together against the forces of Hawāzin and Thaqīf.

During this critical moment, the Prophet ﷺ supplicated to Allah for victory.

According to the authentic narrations, he took a handful of dust or small pebbles and cast them towards the enemy, saying:

"May their faces be disfigured."

The Qur'an later referred to this event by reminding the believers that ultimate victory comes only from Allah:

"You did not kill them, but Allah killed them. And you did not throw when you threw, but Allah threw, so that He might test the believers with a good trial from Himself. Indeed, Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing."

Qur'an 8:17

Although this verse was originally revealed concerning the Battle of Badr, the Companions and early historians also noted the Prophet's ﷺ similar action at Ḥunayn, where he cast dust towards the opposing army while seeking Allah's help.

As the Muslims regrouped, Allah strengthened their resolve.

The Qur'an states:

"Then Allah sent down His tranquillity upon His Messenger and upon the believers, and He sent down forces that you did not see, and He punished those who disbelieved. Such is the recompense of the disbelievers."

Qur'an 9:26

The tide of the battle now changed dramatically.

The coalition that had launched the surprise attack found itself facing a disciplined and determined Muslim force advancing together under the leadership of the Prophet ﷺ.

The initial advantage gained through the ambush rapidly disappeared.

The warriors of Hawāzin and Thaqīf began retreating from the battlefield.

As they withdrew, the army lost its cohesion, and the coalition fragmented into several groups. Some fled towards the fortified city of al-Ṭāʾif, while others retreated in the direction of Awṭās or sought refuge elsewhere in the surrounding region.

The Muslims pursued the retreating forces sufficiently to prevent them from regrouping, but the battle itself had been decisively won.

What had begun as one of the most difficult moments faced by the Muslims since the Battle of Uḥud had ended in a clear victory.

The battle also left the believers with a lasting lesson.

The opening moments of Ḥunayn demonstrated that numerical superiority alone could never guarantee success. Victory belonged to Allah, who grants it according to His wisdom, regardless of the size of an army.

The Spoils of War and the Expedition to Awṭās

Following the decisive victory at Ḥunayn, the battlefield came under Muslim control. The coalition of Hawāzin and Thaqīf had retreated in different directions, leaving behind a vast quantity of property.

According to the early Sīrah sources, the Muslims captured approximately six thousand prisoners, together with around twenty-four thousand camels, more than forty thousand sheep and a considerable quantity of silver. The scale of the spoils reflected Mālik ibn ʿAwf's earlier decision to bring the families, livestock and wealth of the coalition to the battlefield—a strategy that the veteran Durayd ibn al-Ṣimmah had unsuccessfully advised against.

The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ did not immediately distribute the spoils.

Instead, he ordered that the prisoners and property be gathered and taken to al-Jiʿrānah, where they would remain under guard until the campaign had been completed. The Prophet ﷺ hoped that Hawāzin might reconsider their position and come seeking reconciliation before any final decisions were made regarding the captives.

Meanwhile, the defeated coalition had split into several groups.

One contingent retreated towards Awṭās, while the main body of Thaqīf withdrew into the fortified city of al-Ṭāʾif under the leadership of Mālik ibn ʿAwf.

To prevent the forces at Awṭās from regrouping, the Prophet ﷺ dispatched Abū ʿĀmir al-Ashʿarī رضي الله عنه at the head of a detachment to pursue them.

The Muslims caught up with the fleeing force, and another engagement took place at Awṭās.

During the fighting, Abū ʿĀmir was struck by an arrow and sustained a fatal wound.

Before his death, he entrusted command of the detachment to his cousin, Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī رضي الله عنه.

Abū Mūsā continued the engagement, and the Muslims succeeded in defeating the remaining enemy force. Those who survived dispersed, bringing organised resistance at Awṭās to an end.

When Abū Mūsā later returned, he informed the Prophet ﷺ of Abū ʿĀmir's martyrdom.

The Prophet ﷺ supplicated for him, asking Allah to forgive him, elevate his rank and admit him among the righteous servants of Allah.

With the threat at Awṭās removed, only one major centre of resistance remained.

Mālik ibn ʿAwf and the warriors of Thaqīf had withdrawn behind the formidable walls of al-Ṭāʾif, one of the strongest fortified cities in Arabia.

Rather than considering the campaign complete, the Prophet ﷺ resolved to continue the advance.

The Muslim army therefore left the spoils secured at al-Jiʿrānah and marched towards al-Ṭāʾif, where the final phase of the campaign would unfold. There, the Muslims would encounter a type of warfare very different from the open battles of Badr, Uḥud and Ḥunayn, as they prepared to lay siege to one of Arabia's most heavily defended cities.

   

The Siege of al-Ṭāʾif

After securing the battlefield of Ḥunayn and dispersing the remaining forces at Awṭās, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ led the Muslim army towards al-Ṭāʾif.

The city of al-Ṭāʾif was the stronghold of the tribe of Thaqīf and was regarded as one of the most heavily fortified settlements in Arabia. Unlike the open battlefields at Badr, Uḥud and Ḥunayn, the Muslims now faced defenders protected by substantial walls, fortified towers and ample supplies.

Having retreated from Ḥunayn, Mālik ibn ʿAwf and many of the surviving warriors had taken refuge inside the city. They had brought provisions with them and prepared for a prolonged siege.

Upon reaching al-Ṭāʾif, the Prophet ﷺ established the Muslim camp beyond the effective range of the defenders' arrows after some of the Companions were struck during the army's initial approach. The camp was then repositioned to a safer location from which the siege could continue.

The defenders made effective use of their fortifications.

From the city walls they launched repeated volleys of arrows, preventing the Muslims from approaching closely. Several Companions were martyred during these exchanges, while many others sustained injuries.

Recognising that conventional assaults would be costly, the Muslims employed methods of siege warfare that had become known in Arabia.

According to the early historical sources, they used a manjanīq (catapult) to bombard sections of the city and a protected wooden siege shelter (dabbābah) to allow groups of soldiers to approach the walls under cover.

As some of the Muslims advanced beneath the protective shelter, the defenders responded by dropping or throwing heated iron onto it. The shelter was abandoned, and the advancing force withdrew under heavy fire, suffering a number of casualties.

The siege continued for several days.

Despite sustained pressure, the fortifications of al-Ṭāʾif remained intact. The defenders possessed sufficient provisions and showed no indication that they were prepared to surrender in the immediate future.

During the siege, the Prophet ﷺ also proclaimed that any slave who left the city and came to the Muslims would be granted his freedom.

A number of slaves responded to this offer, escaped from al-Ṭāʾif and joined the Muslim camp. The Prophet ﷺ accepted them, granted them their freedom and incorporated them into the Muslim community.

As the days passed, it became increasingly apparent that capturing the city by direct assault would require a prolonged siege with considerable loss of life.

The Prophet ﷺ therefore consulted his Companions regarding the situation.

After assessing the strength of the fortifications and the determination of the defenders, he decided not to continue the siege indefinitely.

The Muslim army withdrew from al-Ṭāʾif without capturing the city.

For some of the Companions, the decision to withdraw was unexpected after the decisive victories at Makkah and Ḥunayn. The Prophet ﷺ, however, understood that preserving the lives of the believers and avoiding unnecessary bloodshed took precedence over forcing an immediate conquest.

Before departing, the Prophet ﷺ did not invoke destruction upon the people of Thaqīf. Instead, he supplicated:

"O Allah, guide Thaqīf and bring them to us."

His supplication reflected the same principle that had characterised much of his mission. Even after armed resistance, he continued to hope for the guidance of those who opposed him rather than their destruction.

The Distribution of the Spoils and the Reconciliation with Hawāzin

After withdrawing from al-Ṭāʾif, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ returned with the Muslim army to al-Jiʿrānah, where the prisoners and spoils captured at Ḥunayn had been kept under guard throughout the campaign.

The Prophet ﷺ deliberately delayed the distribution of the spoils for several days.

He hoped that the defeated tribe of Hawāzin would come seeking reconciliation before the prisoners were divided among the Muslims. In doing so, he provided an opportunity for peace and the restoration of families before permanent decisions were made.

During this period, delegations from various tribes visited the Prophet ﷺ, while the newly converted leaders of Quraysh and other influential figures observed how the immense wealth would be distributed.

When no delegation from Hawāzin arrived during the initial waiting period, the Prophet ﷺ proceeded with the division of the spoils in accordance with the regulations established in Islamic law.

A significant portion of the distribution was given to those known as al-mu'allafah qulūbuhum—individuals whose hearts were to be reconciled or strengthened towards Islam.

Among those who received generous gifts were Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb رضي الله عنه, his sons Muʿāwiyah and Yazīd رضي الله عنهما, Ṣafwān ibn Umayyah رضي الله عنه, Ḥārith ibn Hishām رضي الله عنه, Suhayl ibn ʿAmr رضي الله عنه and several other prominent leaders who had only recently embraced Islam or whose support was considered beneficial for the stability of the Muslim community.

Some received one hundred camels each, together with other property.

The Prophet ﷺ did not distribute these gifts because of personal favouritism or tribal preference. Rather, he sought to strengthen the unity of the rapidly expanding Muslim community during a period of major political change.

Some of the Anṣār observed the generous gifts being given to the recently converted leaders of Quraysh while they themselves received comparatively little from the spoils.

A number of them quietly wondered why those who had only recently accepted Islam appeared to receive more than those who had supported the Prophet ﷺ from the earliest days in Madinah.

When the Prophet ﷺ learned of their concerns, he gathered the Anṣār separately and addressed them with great affection.

He reminded them of Allah's blessings upon them and of the unique relationship they shared with him.

He then asked whether they would not be content that other people returned home with camels and sheep, while the Anṣār returned home with the Messenger of Allah ﷺ.

He said:

"If the people were to take one valley and the Anṣār were to take another valley, I would take the valley of the Anṣār. Had there been no Hijrah, I would have been one of the Anṣār."

The Anṣār were deeply moved by his words.

Many wept, declaring that they were completely satisfied with Allah and His Messenger ﷺ as their share.

Not long afterwards, a delegation from Hawāzin finally arrived at al-Jiʿrānah.

Having accepted Islam, they requested that the Prophet ﷺ return their women and children who had been taken captive after the battle.

The Prophet ﷺ welcomed their delegation warmly.

He explained that the prisoners had already been distributed among the Muslims but offered them a choice between the return of their families or their property.

Without hesitation, they chose the return of their families.

The Prophet ﷺ then announced that he and the members of Banū Hāshim would relinquish their share of the captives.

He asked the Muslims to do likewise.

The Muhājirūn and the Anṣār immediately agreed.

Those Companions who wished to retain their legal share were compensated from later distributions until the families of Hawāzin were reunited.

Thousands of captives were thus released and returned to their relatives.

The decision had a profound effect upon Hawāzin.

Many members of the tribe embraced Islam sincerely after witnessing the Prophet's ﷺ mercy and generosity. What had begun as one of the largest military confrontations of the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime concluded with one of its greatest acts of reconciliation.  

ʿUmrah from al-Jiʿrānah and the Legacy of Ḥunayn

After the captives of Hawāzin had been returned to their families and the distribution of the spoils had been completed, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ remained briefly at al-Jiʿrānah to conclude the affairs arising from the campaign.

From al-Jiʿrānah, the Prophet ﷺ entered into the state of iḥrām and performed ʿUmrah. He then completed the rites in Makkah before returning to Madinah. This ʿUmrah was distinct from the Compensatory ʿUmrah (ʿUmrat al-Qaḍāʾ), which had taken place the previous year under the terms of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah.

The campaign of Ḥunayn marked one of the final major military expeditions fought personally by the Prophet ﷺ within the Arabian Peninsula.

It also provided one of the clearest practical lessons recorded in the Qur'an concerning reliance upon Allah. At the beginning of the campaign, the unprecedented size of the Muslim army led some among the believers to remark that they could not be defeated because of their numbers. The sudden ambush in the valley demonstrated that numerical strength alone offers no guarantee of success. Only when the Muslims regrouped around the Prophet ﷺ and placed their trust completely in Allah was victory granted.

The Qur'anic account of the battle preserved this lesson for future generations:

"Then Allah sent down His tranquillity upon His Messenger and upon the believers, and He sent down forces that you did not see, and He punished those who disbelieved. Such is the recompense of the disbelievers. Then, after that, Allah accepts the repentance of whom He wills. And Allah is Most Forgiving, Most Merciful."

Qur'an 9:26–27

The campaign also demonstrated the Prophet's ﷺ approach to leadership after victory.

Following the conquest of Makkah and the defeat of Hawāzin, he consistently preferred reconciliation where it was possible. He granted a general amnesty to the people of Makkah, returned thousands of captives to Hawāzin after they embraced Islam, distributed wealth to strengthen unity among the tribes and supplicated for the guidance of Thaqīf rather than their destruction after the unsuccessful siege of al-Ṭāʾif.

Politically, the victories at Makkah and Ḥunayn transformed the Arabian Peninsula.

The military power of the principal tribes opposing the Muslims had been decisively broken. The custodians of the Kaʿbah had embraced Islam, Hawāzin had accepted reconciliation, and Thaqīf remained isolated within al-Ṭāʾif. Tribes throughout Arabia increasingly recognised that the Islamic state had become the dominant authority in the region.

The effects became evident during the following year.

Delegations from every part of Arabia began travelling to Madinah to meet the Prophet ﷺ, learn about Islam and enter into treaties with the Muslim community. This period became known in the historical sources as ʿĀm al-Wufūd—the Year of Delegations—during which the message of Islam spread across the Arabian Peninsula at a pace never previously witnessed.

The Battle of Ḥunayn therefore marked the conclusion of one phase of the Sīrah and the beginning of another. The years of continual conflict with the major powers of western Arabia were drawing to a close, while the Prophet's ﷺ mission increasingly centred upon teaching, diplomacy and the peaceful acceptance of Islam by tribes from across the peninsula.  

The Byzantine Threat and the Call to Mobilise

In the ninth year after the Hijrah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ led what would become his final military expedition. Unlike previous campaigns, the Expedition of Tabūk was undertaken not in response to a direct attack upon Madinah, but to confront a growing threat on the northern frontier of Arabia.

Following the Battle of Muʾtah, reports reached Madinah that the Byzantine Empire and several of its Arab Christian allies were assembling forces near the borders of Arabia. The Ghassānid tribes, who had long served as Byzantine allies, remained hostile towards the Muslims after Muʾtah, and intelligence suggested that preparations were being made for a possible advance southwards.

Recognising the seriousness of the reports, the Prophet ﷺ resolved to lead an expedition towards the northern frontier before any hostile force could threaten Madinah.

Unlike many earlier expeditions, the Prophet ﷺ publicly announced both the destination and the objective of the campaign.

Ordinarily, he concealed the intended destination of military expeditions in order to preserve the element of surprise. On this occasion, however, the journey would be exceptionally long, the climate intensely hot and the logistical requirements immense. The Muslims therefore needed time to prepare adequately.

The expedition was announced during one of the hottest periods of the Arabian summer.

The date harvest was approaching, and many people were reluctant to leave their orchards at the very time when their livelihood depended upon them. In addition, the journey to Tabūk would cover hundreds of kilometres across arid desert with limited water and provisions.

The Prophet ﷺ therefore called upon the Muslim community to contribute generously towards equipping the army.

The Companions responded according to their means.

Among the most generous was Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه, who brought all the wealth he possessed.

When the Prophet ﷺ asked what he had left for his family, Abū Bakr replied:

"I have left for them Allah and His Messenger."

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه, hoping on that occasion to surpass Abū Bakr in charity, brought approximately half of his wealth.

When asked what remained for his family, he replied that he had left them the other half.

The Prophet ﷺ accepted both contributions with gratitude.

ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه made one of the most remarkable contributions of the entire expedition.

Seeing that many Muslims lacked the animals and equipment needed for such a long journey, he financed a substantial portion of the army's preparations. According to the authentic narrations, he provided hundreds of camels fully equipped for travel, together with horses and a large quantity of gold.

Witnessing this generosity, the Prophet ﷺ remarked:

"Nothing that ʿUthmān does after today will harm him."

Jāmiʿ al-Tirmidhī (Hadith 3701)

Other Companions contributed whatever they were able.

Some donated food.

Others brought weapons.

Those with limited means gave small amounts, knowing that Allah values sincerity rather than wealth.

Not everyone, however, possessed the means to participate.

Some believers came to the Prophet ﷺ asking for mounts so that they could join the expedition. When he explained that no animals remained to carry them, they departed in tears, grieved that poverty prevented them from accompanying the Muslim army.

The Qur'an later referred to their sincere disappointment:

"Nor is there blame upon those who came to you for mounts and you said, 'I can find no mounts for you.' They turned away while their eyes overflowed with tears out of sorrow that they could not find anything to spend."

Qur'an 9:92

The Journey to Tabūk and the Miracles Along the Way

The Muslim army departed Madinah and began the long journey north towards Tabūk. The expedition crossed barren desert during one of the hottest periods of the year, and the scarcity of water, food and riding animals tested the endurance of every participant.

Many of the Companions shared mounts because there were not enough animals for every man to ride continuously. It was common for several men to take turns riding a single camel while the others walked long distances through the intense heat.

As provisions diminished, some Companions complained of hunger and requested permission to slaughter a number of the camels so that the army could eat.

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه advised the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ not to reduce the number of riding animals, explaining that they would still be needed for the remainder of the journey. Instead, he suggested gathering whatever food remained among the army and asking Allah to bless it.

The Prophet ﷺ accepted the suggestion.

He ordered the Companions to bring the provisions they still possessed. Some brought only a handful of dates, while others contributed small quantities of flour or similar food. The remaining provisions were placed together upon a cloth.

The Prophet ﷺ supplicated to Allah for blessing.

He then instructed the Companions to fill their containers.

According to the authentic narrations, every member of the army ate until satisfied, and all their vessels were filled, while food still remained.

The Prophet ﷺ then reminded the Companions of the foundation of their faith, saying:

"I bear witness that there is no deity worthy of worship except Allah and that I am the Messenger of Allah. No servant meets Allah with these two testimonies, without doubting them, except that he will enter Paradise."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 27)

As the expedition continued, the army suffered from severe thirst.

At one stage, the available water was almost exhausted.

The Prophet ﷺ was informed that only a small amount of water remained in one vessel.

He placed his blessed hand into the container.

According to the authentic narrations, water flowed from between his fingers until the Companions were able to drink and perform wuḍūʾ.

Jābir ibn ʿAbdullāh رضي الله عنه, who narrated the incident, was asked how many people were present.

He replied:

"If we had been one hundred thousand, it would have been enough for us. We were fifteen hundred."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 3576); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1856)

During the journey, the army also passed through the ruins of al-Ḥijr, the ancient dwellings of the people of Thamūd, to whom the Prophet Ṣāliḥ (Salih) عليه السلام had been sent.

The Prophet ﷺ instructed the Companions not to enter the abandoned dwellings except in a state of reflection and humility.

He said:

"Do not enter upon these people who were punished unless you are weeping. If you cannot weep, then do not enter upon them lest what afflicted them should afflict you."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 433); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 2980)

He also instructed the Companions not to drink from the wells used by Thamūd, except for the well from which the she-camel of Ṣāliḥ عليه السلام had been known to drink according to the historical reports. Water that had already been drawn from the other wells was discarded, and dough prepared with it was fed to the animals rather than consumed by the army.

These events reminded the believers that the remains of earlier nations were not places of amusement or curiosity but enduring signs of Allah's judgement upon those who rejected His messengers.

The Arrival at Tabūk and the Absence of the Byzantine Army

After completing the arduous journey across the northern desert, the Muslim army reached Tabūk.

The reports that had reached Madinah had indicated that Byzantine forces and their Arab Christian allies were preparing for military action near the frontier. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ had therefore led the expedition to confront the threat before it could develop into an invasion of Arabia.

Upon arriving at Tabūk, however, the Muslims found no Byzantine army awaiting them.

Neither the imperial forces nor the large coalition that had been anticipated appeared for battle.

Classical Muslim historians have offered various explanations for their absence. Some report that the Byzantine commanders withdrew after learning of the size and determination of the Muslim army, while others suggest that the reports received in Madinah had referred to military preparations that were later abandoned. Whatever the precise reason, no engagement took place at Tabūk.

The Prophet ﷺ remained at Tabūk for approximately twenty days.

During this time, he did not regard the expedition as a failure. Instead, he strengthened the Muslim presence in the northern frontier and established peaceful relations with several neighbouring communities.

Among the rulers who came to meet the Prophet ﷺ was Yūḥannā ibn Ruʾbah, the Christian ruler of Aylah (modern Aqaba).

He entered into a treaty with the Prophet ﷺ, agreeing to live peacefully under Muslim protection and to pay the jizyah in accordance with the terms of the agreement. The Prophet ﷺ guaranteed the security of the people of Aylah, their ships and their trade routes.

Similar agreements were concluded with the people of Jarbāʾ and Adhruḥ.

These treaties extended peaceful relations between the Muslim state and several communities along the northern frontier without warfare.

The Expedition of Tabūk therefore achieved important political and strategic objectives despite the absence of battle.

It demonstrated that the Muslims were prepared to undertake long-distance expeditions against the greatest military power of the region. It also established the influence of the Islamic state among the frontier settlements bordering Byzantine territory.

While at Tabūk, the Prophet ﷺ also sent Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه on a separate mission to Dūmat al-Jandal.

Khālid led a detachment of cavalry and encountered Ukaydir ibn ʿAbd al-Malik, the Christian ruler of the region.

Ukaydir was captured without a major battle and brought before the Prophet ﷺ.

The Prophet ﷺ concluded a treaty with him, under which he was released after agreeing to peaceful relations and the payment of jizyah.

These agreements demonstrated that the purpose of the expedition was not indiscriminate warfare but the establishment of security, the removal of hostile threats and the creation of stable relations with neighbouring peoples through diplomacy where possible.

After remaining at Tabūk and completing these treaties, the Prophet ﷺ ordered the army to prepare for the return journey to Madinah.

   

The Mosque of al-Ḍirār and the Return to Madinah

After completing the affairs at Tabūk, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ led the Muslim army on the journey back to Madinah.

Before the expedition, a group of hypocrites had constructed a building on the outskirts of Madinah and presented it to the Prophet ﷺ as a mosque. They requested that he perform prayer there before departing for Tabūk so that it might gain honour among the Muslims.

The Prophet ﷺ declined at that time, explaining that he was about to depart on the expedition and would consider their request upon his return.

During the Prophet's ﷺ absence, Allah revealed the true purpose of the building.

It had not been constructed for the worship of Allah but to create division among the believers, provide a meeting place for the hypocrites and support those who opposed Islam.

Allah revealed:

"And there are those who took a mosque for causing harm, disbelief, division among the believers, and as an outpost for those who had previously waged war against Allah and His Messenger. They will surely swear, 'We intended nothing but good,' but Allah bears witness that they are certainly liars."

Qur'an 9:107

Allah then instructed the Prophet ﷺ:

"Never stand in it. A mosque founded upon righteousness from the first day is more worthy that you should stand therein. In it are men who love to purify themselves, and Allah loves those who purify themselves."

Qur'an 9:108

As the Prophet ﷺ approached Madinah, he acted upon this revelation.

He instructed several Companions to go to the building, demolish it and burn its remains.

The structure thereafter became known as Masjid al-Ḍirār ("the Mosque of Harm"), distinguishing it from Masjid Qubāʾ, which the Qur'an described as having been founded upon righteousness.

The incident established an important principle in Islamic history: a building is not regarded as a mosque merely because it bears that name. A place established to promote hypocrisy, division or opposition to Allah and His Messenger ﷺ does not acquire the sanctity of a true mosque.

During the return journey, another incident occurred involving a small group of hypocrites.

According to authentic reports, they secretly attempted to cause the Prophet ﷺ to fall from his mount while he was travelling through a narrow mountain pass at night.

The Prophet ﷺ had been informed of their plot and instructed ʿAmmār ibn Yāsir رضي الله عنه to lead his mount while Ḥudhayfah ibn al-Yamān رضي الله عنه rode behind him.

When the conspirators approached with their faces concealed, Ḥudhayfah drove them away at the Prophet's ﷺ command.

The plot failed, and the Prophet ﷺ continued safely towards Madinah.

According to the authentic narrations, the Prophet ﷺ informed Ḥudhayfah of the identities of those involved, but he did not publicly expose their names. For this reason, Ḥudhayfah later became known among the Companions as the keeper of the Prophet's confidential knowledge concerning the hypocrites.

The expedition concluded with the safe return of the Muslim army to Madinah.

Although no battle had taken place at Tabūk, the campaign exposed the hypocrisy of those who sought to weaken the Muslim community from within, strengthened the northern frontier through diplomacy and demonstrated the growing influence of the Islamic state throughout Arabia and beyond.

   

The Three Believers Who Remained Behind

Upon returning to Madinah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was met by those who had remained behind during the Expedition of Tabūk.

Many of the hypocrites came to him offering excuses for their absence. According to the Qur'an, they swore oaths and presented explanations in an attempt to avoid blame.

The Prophet ﷺ accepted their outward declarations, left their inner intentions to Allah and sought forgiveness for them according to what was apparent.

Allah later revealed concerning them:

"They will make excuses to you when you return to them. Say, 'Do not make excuses. We will never believe you. Allah has already informed us about you. Allah and His Messenger will observe your deeds, then you will be returned to the Knower of the unseen and the seen, and He will inform you of what you used to do.'"

Qur'an 9:94

In contrast to the hypocrites were three sincere believers who had remained behind without any valid excuse.

They were Kaʿb ibn Mālik, Murārah ibn al-Rabīʿ and Hilāl ibn Umayyah رضي الله عنهم.

Each had intended to join the expedition but repeatedly delayed making preparations until the army had departed. Unlike the hypocrites, they did not attempt to fabricate excuses when the Prophet ﷺ returned.

Kaʿb ibn Mālik later narrated the events in detail.

When he appeared before the Prophet ﷺ, he admitted truthfully that he had no excuse for remaining behind.

The Prophet ﷺ replied:

"As for this man, he has spoken the truth."

He then instructed Kaʿb to wait until Allah judged his matter.

The same judgement was applied to Murārah and Hilāl.

The Prophet ﷺ instructed the Muslim community not to speak to the three men.

This social boycott continued for forty days.

During this period, the three experienced profound remorse and devoted themselves to repentance.

After forty days had passed, the Prophet ﷺ instructed them also to separate from their wives until Allah's judgement became clear.

The trial continued for a total of fifty days.

Kaʿb later described the immense emotional hardship of those days, stating that despite the vastness of the earth, it seemed constricted upon them because of their distress and sincere repentance.

At the conclusion of the fifty days, Allah accepted their repentance.

The Qur'an declared:

"And He also forgave the three who were left behind until the earth, vast as it is, became constrained for them, and their own souls became constrained, and they realised that there is no refuge from Allah except with Him. Then He turned to them in mercy so that they might repent. Indeed, Allah is the Acceptor of Repentance, the Most Merciful."

Qur'an 9:118

When this revelation was received, the Prophet ﷺ immediately informed the Companions.

The news spread rapidly throughout Madinah.

One of the Companions hurried to Kaʿb ibn Mālik to announce that Allah had accepted his repentance.

Kaʿb came to the Prophet ﷺ, who greeted him with a smiling face and said:

"Rejoice with the best day you have known since your mother gave birth to you."

Out of gratitude to Allah, Kaʿb donated a portion of his wealth in charity.

He also declared that one of the greatest lessons he had learned from the ordeal was never again to speak anything but the truth.

The account of the three believers became one of the most enduring examples in the Sīrah of sincere repentance, honesty and Allah's mercy. Unlike the hypocrites, who attempted to conceal their wrongdoing through false excuses, these three Companions admitted their error openly, endured its consequences with patience and were honoured by having the acceptance of their repentance recorded forever in the Qur'an.

   

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Expedition of Tabūk was the final military campaign personally led by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. Although no major battle took place, it proved to be one of the most significant expeditions of his prophetic mission because of its political, religious and strategic consequences.

The expedition demonstrated the growing strength of the Muslim community.

Only a few years earlier, the Muslims had struggled to defend Madinah against attacks from Quraysh and their allies. At Tabūk, however, the Prophet ﷺ successfully mobilised approximately thirty thousand believers for a campaign extending hundreds of kilometres beyond Madinah to the northern frontier of Arabia. The ability to organise and sustain such an expedition reflected the remarkable transformation of the Islamic state.

The campaign also established the influence of the Muslims among the frontier communities bordering Byzantine territory.

Without engaging in battle, the Prophet ﷺ concluded treaties with several neighbouring rulers and communities, extending peaceful relations and securing the northern approaches to Arabia. These agreements enhanced the security of the Muslim state and demonstrated that diplomacy remained the preferred means of establishing stable relations where conflict could be avoided.

Tabūk also exposed the true character of the hypocrites more clearly than any previous event.

Throughout the expedition, many sought excuses to avoid participation, discouraged others from joining the army and even attempted to undermine the unity of the Muslim community. Their conduct became the subject of numerous verses revealed in Sūrah al-Tawbah, distinguishing sincere faith from outward profession unsupported by conviction.

In contrast, the account of Kaʿb ibn Mālik, Murārah ibn al-Rabīʿ and Hilāl ibn Umayyah رضي الله عنهم became one of the clearest demonstrations of the importance of truthfulness and repentance. Their willingness to admit their error, despite the severe consequences they endured, resulted in Allah revealing verses announcing the acceptance of their repentance, preserving their example for all future generations.

The expedition also illustrated the generosity and sacrifice of the believers.

The financial contributions of the Companions, particularly Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb and ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنهم, together with the perseverance of those who endured the hardships of the journey, exemplified the unity and commitment of the Muslim community during one of its most demanding campaigns.

Although the anticipated confrontation with the Byzantine forces did not occur, the strategic objectives of the expedition were achieved.

The northern frontier was secured, hostile tribes recognised the growing authority of the Muslim state, and the prestige of the Muslims increased throughout Arabia. The absence of battle itself demonstrated the deterrent effect of the expedition and the respect the Muslim community had come to command among neighbouring powers.

The events following Tabūk marked the beginning of the final phase of the Prophet's ﷺ mission.

With the major centres of opposition within Arabia either reconciled or subdued, tribes from across the peninsula increasingly travelled to Madinah to embrace Islam and establish formal relations with the Muslim state. This period became known as ʿĀm al-Wufūd—the Year of Delegations—during which representatives from every region of Arabia came to meet the Prophet ﷺ, learn about Islam and enter into treaties with the Muslim community.

Arabia Turns Towards Islam

The ninth year after the Hijrah became known in the Islamic historical sources as ʿĀm al-Wufūd ("The Year of Delegations"). During this period, representatives from tribes across the Arabian Peninsula travelled to Madinah to meet the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, embrace Islam, conclude treaties and establish formal relations with the rapidly expanding Islamic state.

This remarkable development was the culmination of several years of profound political and religious change.

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah had provided the Muslims with the stability necessary to spread the message of Islam beyond continuous warfare. The peaceful conquest of Makkah had removed the principal centre of opposition within Arabia, while the victories at Ḥunayn and the subsequent Expedition of Tabūk demonstrated both the military strength and political stability of the Muslim community.

For many tribes, the acceptance of Islam by Quraysh proved especially significant.

For generations, Quraysh had been recognised as the custodians of the Kaʿbah and the leading tribe of western Arabia. Many Arab tribes had delayed making a decision regarding Muhammad ﷺ until they observed the outcome of the conflict between him and Quraysh.

The Companion ʿAmr ibn Salamah رضي الله عنه later explained:

"The Arabs would wait for Quraysh regarding the Messenger of Allah ﷺ. They would say, 'Leave him and his people. If he overcomes them, then he is truly a Prophet.' When Makkah was conquered, every tribe hastened to accept Islam."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 4302)

Following the conquest of Makkah, delegations began arriving from every region of Arabia.

Some came seeking to learn about Islam.

Others came to pledge allegiance to the Prophet ﷺ.

Some requested teachers to instruct their people in the Qur'an and the principles of the new faith.

Others sought treaties that would establish peaceful relations between their tribes and the Muslim community.

The Prophet ﷺ received each delegation with courtesy and respect.

He listened carefully to their questions, explained the teachings of Islam according to their circumstances and often appointed knowledgeable Companions to accompany them back to their homelands as teachers and judges.

The delegations represented a wide variety of backgrounds.

Some had previously opposed the Muslims.

Others had remained neutral throughout the earlier conflicts.

Several had already accepted Islam before arriving in Madinah and now sought guidance regarding the practical obligations of their faith.

This period differed significantly from the earlier years of the Prophet's mission.

Where once individual believers had secretly embraced Islam despite persecution, entire tribes now entered the religion peacefully through dialogue, teaching and mutual agreement.

The Year of Delegations therefore marked the near completion of the Prophet's ﷺ mission throughout Arabia. Within only a few years of the conquest of Makkah, the overwhelming majority of the Arabian Peninsula had either embraced Islam or entered into peaceful agreements with the Islamic state.

The Delegation of Banū Tamīm

Among the most prominent delegations to visit Madinah during the Year of Delegations was that of Banū Tamīm, one of the largest and most influential tribal confederations in Arabia.

The delegation consisted of leading figures from the tribe, including al-Aqraʿ ibn Ḥābis, al-Zibriqān ibn Badr, ʿUṭārid ibn Ḥājib and others. They arrived in Madinah seeking an audience with the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

According to the authentic narrations, the delegation called to the Prophet ﷺ from outside his private apartments:

"O Muhammad, come out to us!"

Allah revealed verses concerning this incident, instructing the believers regarding proper manners when addressing the Prophet ﷺ:

"Indeed, those who call you from behind the private chambers, most of them do not understand. Had they been patient until you came out to them, it would have been better for them. And Allah is Most Forgiving, Most Merciful."

Qur'an 49:4–5

These verses established an important principle of etiquette, teaching that respect, patience and proper conduct should be observed when approaching the Messenger of Allah ﷺ.

The delegation of Banū Tamīm was well known for its eloquent speakers and poets.

In accordance with Arab custom, one of their orators delivered a speech praising the honour and status of his tribe.

The Prophet ﷺ then invited Thābit ibn Qays ibn Shammas رضي الله عنه, who was renowned among the Muslims for his eloquence, to respond on behalf of the Muslim community.

After the speeches, one of the poets of Banū Tamīm recited verses extolling the virtues of his people.

The Prophet ﷺ asked Ḥassān ibn Thābit رضي الله عنه, the celebrated poet of the Muslims, to reply.

Ḥassān composed and recited verses affirming the truth of Islam, praising Allah and His Messenger ﷺ and explaining that true honour is found through faith and righteousness rather than tribal ancestry alone.

The exchange concluded peacefully.

The members of Banū Tamīm recognised the eloquence of the Qur'an and the character of the Prophet ﷺ. Many members of the delegation accepted Islam, while others strengthened their relationship with the Muslim community through peaceful agreement.

Their visit also illustrated the transformation taking place throughout Arabia.

In earlier years, tribal prestige had often been measured through lineage, military strength and poetic competition. During the Year of Delegations, these traditional gatherings increasingly became opportunities to learn about Islam and to establish peaceful relations with the Prophet ﷺ.

The delegation of Banū Tamīm returned to their homeland carrying a deeper understanding of the teachings of Islam, contributing to its continued spread among one of the largest tribal confederations in the Arabian Peninsula.

The Delegation of Banū ʿAbd al-Qays

Among the most distinguished delegations received by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ during the Year of Delegations was that of Banū ʿAbd al-Qays, a tribe from the region of Baḥrayn in eastern Arabia.

Unlike many delegations that arrived only after the conquest of Makkah, members of Banū ʿAbd al-Qays had shown an interest in Islam at an earlier stage of the Prophet's mission. Their geographical location, however, presented difficulties, as they had to travel through territories controlled by tribes that remained hostile to the Muslims.

When the delegation reached Madinah, the Prophet ﷺ welcomed them warmly.

As they entered, most of the delegation hurried to greet the Prophet ﷺ immediately.

One member, al-Ashajj ʿAbd al-Qays, first secured the animals, organised the luggage and changed into clean clothing before approaching the Prophet ﷺ.

Observing his composure and good judgement, the Prophet ﷺ said:

"Indeed, you possess two qualities that Allah loves: forbearance and deliberation."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 17)

The delegation expressed their belief in Allah and His Messenger ﷺ and asked the Prophet ﷺ to teach them the essentials of Islam that they could convey to those who had remained behind in their homeland.

The Prophet ﷺ instructed them regarding the foundations of faith and the practical obligations of Islam. He commanded them to believe in Allah alone, establish the prescribed prayers, pay zakāh, fast during the month of Ramaḍān and give one-fifth of war booty when applicable according to Islamic law.

He also prohibited them from preparing intoxicating drinks in certain types of containers that were commonly used for fermentation, because such practices frequently resulted in the production of intoxicants. The prohibition addressed the manufacture of intoxicating beverages rather than the containers themselves.

The delegation listened attentively and committed themselves to conveying these teachings faithfully to their people.

Their visit demonstrated one of the principal purposes of the Year of Delegations.

The Prophet ﷺ did not merely receive pledges of allegiance. He educated each delegation according to its circumstances, ensuring that every tribe returned with a sound understanding of the beliefs and practices of Islam.

Banū ʿAbd al-Qays returned to eastern Arabia as one of the earliest Muslim communities in that region.

Their acceptance of Islam contributed significantly to the peaceful spread of the religion along the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula and established a lasting connection between the people of Baḥrayn and the Muslim community in Madinah.

Other Delegations from Across Arabia

As news of the peaceful acceptance of Islam by the major tribes spread throughout the Arabian Peninsula, delegations continued arriving in Madinah from every direction. Some came to embrace Islam, others sought clarification regarding its teachings, while others concluded treaties establishing peaceful relations with the Muslim state.

Among those who came was the delegation of Ṭayyʾ, one of the largest tribes in northern Arabia.

The tribe had previously been associated with the celebrated Arab leader ʿAdī ibn Ḥātim, the son of the renowned poet and philanthropist Ḥātim al-Ṭāʾī. Although ʿAdī had initially remained outside the Muslim community, he eventually travelled to Madinah and met the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

The Prophet ﷺ spoke to him about Islam and invited him to worship Allah alone.

During their conversation, the Prophet ﷺ foretold that security and prosperity would spread throughout Arabia. Among the matters he mentioned was that a woman would one day be able to travel alone from Iraq to Makkah fearing none but Allah, and that the treasures of the Persian Empire would eventually come under Muslim control.

ʿAdī ibn Ḥātim later embraced Islam and witnessed the fulfilment of these prophecies during his lifetime.

Among the delegations was also that of Banū Ḥanīfah from the region of al-Yamāmah.

Included within this delegation was Musaylimah ibn Ḥabīb.

The Prophet ﷺ received the delegation courteously, as he did all visitors, and invited them to Islam.

While the majority of the delegation accepted Islam, Musaylimah later abandoned the truth after returning to his homeland. Claiming prophethood for himself, he asserted that he shared authority with the Messenger of Allah ﷺ.

When Musaylimah sent a letter proposing that the earth should be divided between himself and the Prophet ﷺ, the Prophet ﷺ replied:

"From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Musaylimah the liar. Peace be upon whoever follows guidance. Indeed, the earth belongs to Allah. He causes whom He wills of His servants to inherit it, and the good end belongs to the righteous."

Musaylimah's false claim would later lead to the Wars of Apostasy during the caliphate of Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه.

Delegations also arrived from Yemen, Oman, Baḥrayn, Ḥaḍramawt and numerous other regions of Arabia.

The Prophet ﷺ appointed governors, judges and teachers to accompany many of these delegations so that the Qur'an and the teachings of Islam could be taught correctly within their communities.

This period marked a significant change in the nature of the Prophet's mission.

For many years, much of his effort had been devoted to calling individuals and small groups to Islam while defending the Muslim community against repeated attacks. During the Year of Delegations, entire tribes now embraced Islam peacefully and sought guidance directly from the Prophet ﷺ.

By the end of the ninth year after the Hijrah, the overwhelming majority of Arabia had either entered Islam or established peaceful relations with the Islamic state, fundamentally transforming the religious and political landscape of the peninsula.

The Completion of the Mission Throughout Arabia

The Year of Delegations marked the final great phase in the spread of Islam during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. By the close of the ninth year after the Hijrah, delegations from nearly every region of the Arabian Peninsula had visited Madinah to meet the Prophet ﷺ, learn the teachings of Islam and establish formal relations with the Muslim community.

The Prophet ﷺ did not merely receive these delegations as political representatives. He taught them the principles of faith, instructed them in the obligations of Islam and appointed qualified Companions to accompany many of them as teachers, judges and administrators.

Among those whom the Prophet ﷺ appointed to various regions were Muʿādh ibn Jabal, Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī, Khālid ibn al-Walīd, ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ and others رضي الله عنهم. They were entrusted with teaching the Qur'an, collecting zakāh where applicable, settling disputes according to Islamic law and helping newly Muslim communities establish their religious practices.

The Year of Delegations also fulfilled the broader objective of the Prophet's mission within Arabia.

When the revelation first began in Makkah, the Prophet ﷺ stood almost alone, calling his people to worship Allah alone while facing rejection, persecution and exile. More than twenty years later, representatives from across the peninsula voluntarily travelled to Madinah seeking his guidance and embracing the religion that had once been opposed so fiercely.

The Qur'an alludes to this transformation in Sūrat al-Naṣr:

"When the help of Allah and the victory come, and you see the people entering the religion of Allah in multitudes, then glorify the praise of your Lord and seek His forgiveness. Indeed, He is Ever Accepting of Repentance."

Qur'an 110:1–3

The Companions understood these verses to signify not only the widespread acceptance of Islam following the conquest of Makkah but also that the Prophet's ﷺ mission was approaching its completion.

The Year of Delegations therefore stands as one of the clearest demonstrations of the success of the Prophet's mission. Through perseverance, teaching, diplomacy and, where necessary, lawful defence, the message of Islam had spread throughout the Arabian Peninsula.

By the end of this period, only a few major events remained before the completion of the Prophet's earthly mission. These included the pilgrimage led by Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه during the ninth year after the Hijrah, the public proclamation of the opening verses of Sūrah al-Tawbah, the Farewell Pilgrimage, the Farewell Sermon and the final illness of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

The Pilgrimage of the Ninth Year After the Hijrah

In the ninth year after the Hijrah, following the Year of Delegations, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ resolved that the annual pilgrimage should proceed under Muslim leadership.

Although Makkah had come under Muslim authority after its peaceful conquest, many customs inherited from the pre-Islamic period were still practised during the pilgrimage. Pagan Arabs continued to participate in the rites, and existing treaties with various tribes remained in force according to their agreed terms.

The Prophet ﷺ did not personally perform the pilgrimage that year.

Instead, he appointed Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه as Amīr al-Ḥajj (Leader of the Pilgrimage), making him the first Muslim appointed to lead the Hajj on behalf of the Islamic state.

Abū Bakr departed Madinah with approximately three hundred Muslims, guiding them through the rites of Hajj in accordance with the teachings of Islam.

After Abū Bakr had departed, Allah revealed the opening verses of Sūrah al-Tawbah.

These verses announced a formal declaration concerning certain pagan tribes that had repeatedly violated their treaties with the Muslims. At the same time, they reaffirmed that those tribes which had faithfully honoured their agreements were to continue receiving the protection guaranteed by their treaties until their specified terms expired.

Allah revealed:

"This is a declaration of disassociation from Allah and His Messenger to those polytheists with whom you made treaties."

Qur'an 9:1

He also declared:

"Except for those polytheists with whom you have a treaty and who have not failed you in anything nor supported anyone against you. Fulfil your treaty with them until the end of its term. Indeed, Allah loves those who are mindful of Him."

Qur'an 9:4

Because these verses constituted an official public proclamation affecting the pilgrimage and the treaty obligations of the Muslim state, the Prophet ﷺ sent ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه after Abū Bakr with instructions to recite the newly revealed verses publicly before the pilgrims.

When ʿAlī caught up with Abū Bakr, Abū Bakr asked whether he had come to replace him as leader of the pilgrimage.

ʿAlī replied that he had not.

Abū Bakr would remain the leader of the Hajj, while ʿAlī had been entrusted specifically with proclaiming the revelation that Allah had just sent down.

The two Companions then continued together towards Makkah, each carrying out the responsibility assigned to him by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

The Public Declaration at Minā

After completing the principal rites of the pilgrimage, the pilgrims assembled at Minā during the Days of Tashrīq.

On the instruction of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه stood before the assembled pilgrims and publicly recited the opening verses of Sūrah al-Tawbah.

The proclamation announced Allah's judgement concerning those pagan tribes that had repeatedly violated their treaties with the Muslims, supported hostile forces against them or failed to honour the agreements they had concluded.

At the same time, the declaration carefully distinguished between those tribes and others who had remained faithful to their treaties.

Allah had already commanded:

"Except for those polytheists with whom you have a treaty and who have not failed you in anything nor supported anyone against you. Fulfil your treaty with them until the end of its term. Indeed, Allah loves those who are mindful of Him."

Qur'an 9:4

After reciting the revealed verses, ʿAlī publicly announced four declarations on behalf of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ.

First, those tribes that had violated their treaties were granted a period of four months in which they could travel safely throughout the land before the declaration took full effect.

Allah revealed:

"So travel freely throughout the land for four months, but know that you cannot escape Allah, and that Allah will disgrace the disbelievers."

Qur'an 9:2

Second, no idolater would be permitted to perform the pilgrimage after that year.

The Sacred House, which had been restored to the worship of Allah alone at the conquest of Makkah, would no longer serve as a place of pilgrimage for those who persisted in polytheism.

Third, the practice of performing ṭawāf around the Kaʿbah while unclothed—a custom inherited from the pre-Islamic period—was permanently abolished.

Finally, all treaties would continue to be honoured according to their agreed terms unless they had already been violated by the other party. Those who had remained faithful to their agreements would continue to receive the protection guaranteed by their treaties until they expired.

This public proclamation marked a decisive turning point in the religious life of Arabia.

For centuries, the annual pilgrimage had been attended by both the descendants of Ibrāhīm (Abraham) عليه السلام who still acknowledged Allah and those who had introduced idolatrous practices into the rites. Following this declaration, the pilgrimage would thereafter be devoted exclusively to the worship of Allah alone.

The proclamation also demonstrated an important principle of Islamic law.

The command did not apply indiscriminately to all non-Muslims. The Qur'an explicitly distinguished between those who had honoured their treaties and those who had repeatedly violated them. Faithful agreements remained binding until their appointed term, while persistent treachery brought those agreements to an end in accordance with the declaration revealed in Sūrah al-Tawbah.

The Revelation of the "Sword Verse" in Its Historical Context

Among the verses proclaimed during the pilgrimage was one that has frequently been quoted without its historical context.

After announcing that certain treaty-breaking tribes were granted a period of four months, Allah revealed:

"Then, when the sacred months have passed, kill the polytheists wherever you find them, capture them, besiege them, and lie in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they repent, establish prayer and give zakāh, then leave their way free. Indeed, Allah is Most Forgiving, Most Merciful."

Qur'an 9:5

This verse is often referred to as the "Sword Verse."

Read in isolation, it has sometimes been presented as a general command to fight all non-Muslims. The historical context established by both the Qur'an and the classical commentators, however, demonstrates that the verse addressed a specific category of people.

The opening verses of Sūrah al-Tawbah identify the subject of the declaration as those pagan tribes that had repeatedly violated their treaties with the Muslims.

Only one verse earlier, Allah excluded from the declaration those who had remained faithful to their agreements:

"Except for those polytheists with whom you have a treaty and who have not failed you in anything nor supported anyone against you. Fulfil your treaty with them until the end of its term. Indeed, Allah loves those who are mindful of Him."

Qur'an 9:4

Likewise, immediately after the so-called Sword Verse, Allah commanded that even among the hostile tribes, anyone seeking protection in order to hear the message of Islam was to be granted safety.

Allah revealed:

"And if any one of the polytheists seeks your protection, then grant him protection so that he may hear the word of Allah. Then escort him to his place of safety. That is because they are a people who do not know."

Qur'an 9:6

Classical commentators, including al-Ṭabarī, Ibn Kathīr and al-Qurṭubī, explained that these verses concern the pagan Arab tribes that had violated their treaties, repeatedly engaged in hostilities against the Muslims and persisted in those actions even after receiving opportunities to honour their agreements.

The sequence of the verses establishes a clear legal framework.

First, a declaration was issued.

Second, a four-month period of security was granted.

Third, those who continued their hostility after the expiry of that period could be fought.

Fourth, any individual requesting protection was to be granted safe conduct and escorted to a place of security after hearing the message of Islam.

The passage therefore combines military instruction with legal safeguards and demonstrates that the objective was to address persistent treaty violations rather than to authorise indiscriminate violence.

The historical setting of these verses is essential to understanding their meaning. They were revealed after years of broken agreements, repeated acts of aggression and the peaceful conquest of Makkah, when the Muslim community was establishing lasting security throughout the Arabian Peninsula.

The End of Pagan Pilgrimage Practices

The proclamation of Sūrah al-Tawbah during the pilgrimage of the ninth year after the Hijrah marked the end of the remaining pre-Islamic practices associated with the Kaʿbah.

Although Makkah had been peacefully conquered the previous year and the idols within and around the Kaʿbah had been destroyed, some customs inherited from the Age of Ignorance (Jāhiliyyah) continued to be observed during the annual pilgrimage by tribes that had not yet fully accepted the reforms introduced by Islam.

One of these practices was the participation of pagan Arabs in the pilgrimage while continuing to associate partners with Allah.

The declaration proclaimed by ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه announced that this would be the final year in which such participation would be permitted.

From the following year onward, the pilgrimage would be devoted exclusively to the worship of Allah.

Another practice permanently abolished was the custom of performing ṭawāf around the Kaʿbah without clothing.

Some Arab tribes believed that garments worn while committing sins were unfit to be worn during the rites of pilgrimage. Those unable to obtain clothing from Quraysh or another approved source sometimes circumambulated the Kaʿbah unclothed, believing this demonstrated religious devotion.

Islam rejected this practice entirely.

The Qur'an had already established the principle that modesty and dignity were integral to worship.

Allah revealed:

"O children of Ādam, take your adornment at every place of prayer, and eat and drink, but do not be excessive. Indeed, He does not love those who commit excess."

Qur'an 7:31

By prohibiting naked circumambulation, Islam restored the dignity of the pilgrimage and reaffirmed that acts of worship must be performed in accordance with the guidance revealed by Allah rather than inherited customs.

The proclamation also confirmed that the Kaʿbah had returned to the purpose for which it had originally been built by Ibrāhīm (Abraham) عليه السلام and Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) عليه السلام: the worship of Allah alone.

From that time onward, the rites of Hajj were purified of the idolatrous practices that had gradually entered them over many centuries.

The declaration represented the completion of a process that had begun with the conquest of Makkah.

The idols had been removed from the Sacred Sanctuary, the pilgrimage had been purified from pagan practices, and the remaining treaty obligations had been clarified publicly before the tribes of Arabia.

The following year, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ would personally lead the Hajj for the first and only time after the completion of these reforms, demonstrating the pilgrimage in its final and complete Islamic form.

The Completion of Treaty Obligations and the Establishment of a New Order

The proclamation of Sūrah al-Tawbah did not abolish every treaty that existed between the Muslims and the tribes of Arabia. Rather, it distinguished carefully between those who had honoured their agreements and those who had repeatedly violated them.

Allah commanded:

"How can there be a treaty with the polytheists before Allah and His Messenger, except for those with whom you made a treaty at al-Masjid al-Ḥarām? So long as they remain true to you, remain true to them. Indeed, Allah loves those who are mindful of Him."

Qur'an 9:7

This principle reaffirmed that treaties remained binding so long as both parties fulfilled their obligations. The Muslim community was not permitted to violate agreements unilaterally, nor was it permitted to punish tribes that had remained faithful to their covenants.

Allah further described the conduct of those tribes whose repeated violations had led to the declaration:

"Will you not fight a people who broke their oaths, determined to expel the Messenger, and initiated the attack against you first? Do you fear them? Allah has more right that you should fear Him, if you are believers."

Qur'an 9:13

The Qur'an therefore identified three principal reasons for the declaration:

• They had broken their treaties.
• They had sought to expel the Messenger of Allah ﷺ.
• They had initiated hostilities against the Muslims.

These verses were revealed after years of repeated treaty violations and armed aggression. They were not addressed to peaceful communities that had honoured their agreements.

With the proclamation completed, the political and legal situation throughout Arabia changed fundamentally.

The era in which pagan tribes entered into temporary military alliances while repeatedly violating their obligations had come to an end. Every tribe now clearly understood its position. Those who had honoured their treaties continued to enjoy their protection until the agreed expiry dates. Those who had violated their covenants were given a public declaration and a defined period in which to determine their future relationship with the Muslim community.

The proclamation also established that the Sacred Precinct surrounding the Kaʿbah would no longer be a centre for idolatry or a refuge for those who repeatedly broke their agreements while continuing acts of hostility.

By combining justice with the faithful observance of treaties, the declaration completed the legal framework governing relations between the Muslim state and the remaining pagan tribes of Arabia during the final years of the Prophet's ﷺ mission.

Historical Significance

The pilgrimage of the ninth year after the Hijrah marked a decisive stage in the completion of the Prophet Muhammad's ﷺ mission throughout Arabia. Although the Prophet ﷺ did not personally lead the Hajj that year, the appointment of Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه as Amīr al-Ḥajj and the public proclamation of Sūrah al-Tawbah by ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه established the legal and religious framework that would govern the pilgrimage thereafter.

The proclamation clarified the status of the remaining treaties between the Muslim community and the pagan tribes of Arabia. It reaffirmed that agreements with those who had honoured their covenants remained binding until the end of their specified term, while those who had repeatedly violated their treaties were publicly notified that those agreements had come to an end after the period granted by Allah.

The events of the pilgrimage also completed the purification of the Sacred House from the remaining practices of the Age of Ignorance (Jāhiliyyah). From the following year onward, the Hajj would be performed solely according to the guidance revealed by Allah, free from idolatry and the customs that had gradually become associated with the pilgrimage over many centuries.

The opening verses of Sūrah al-Tawbah remain among the most frequently discussed passages of the Qur'an. Read together and within their historical setting, they establish several enduring legal principles:

• Covenants and treaties are to be honoured faithfully.
• Treachery and repeated violations of agreements have legal consequences.
• Public notice must precede the termination of treaties.
• Those seeking protection are to be granted safety and escorted to a place of security after hearing the message of Islam.
• Military action is directed against persistent aggression and treaty violation, not against peaceful communities that honour their agreements.

By the conclusion of the ninth year after the Hijrah, the Arabian Peninsula had entered a new era. The major centres of armed opposition had ceased, the pilgrimage had been restored to the worship of Allah alone, and tribes from across Arabia increasingly entered Islam or lived in peace under the treaties concluded with the Muslim state.

Only one major public event remained before the completion of the Prophet's ﷺ mission. In the following year, he would personally perform the Hajj for the first and only time after the complete purification of the Sacred Sanctuary. That pilgrimage would become known as Ḥajjat al-Wadāʿ—the Farewell Pilgrimage—during which he delivered the Farewell Sermon and demonstrated the rites of Hajj in their complete and final form.

The Arrival of the Christian Delegation

In the tenth year after the Hijrah, one of the most significant diplomatic and theological encounters of the Prophet Muhammad's ﷺ mission took place when a delegation of Christians from Najrān travelled to Madinah.

Najrān, situated in the southern Arabian Peninsula, was one of the principal centres of Christianity in Arabia. Its inhabitants included bishops, priests and respected religious scholars, and the region maintained longstanding religious and commercial ties with the Byzantine Christian world.

According to the early historical sources, the delegation consisted of approximately sixty members, among whom were several of their leading religious authorities. Among the most prominent were Abū Ḥārithah ibn ʿAlqamah, a highly respected bishop renowned for his knowledge of the Christian scriptures, al-ʿĀqib ʿAbd al-Masīḥ, who exercised political leadership over the delegation, and al-Sayyid al-Ayham, another leading representative of the community.

The purpose of their visit was not military or political confrontation but religious dialogue.

They sought to discuss the Prophet's claim to prophethood, the message of Islam and, in particular, the Islamic understanding of ʿĪsā (Jesus) عليه السلام, whose nature and status formed the central point of discussion between the two faiths.

The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ received the delegation with courtesy and hospitality.

According to the early Sīrah sources, they stayed in Madinah for several days while engaging in respectful discussions with the Prophet ﷺ concerning matters of belief.

When the time for their worship arrived, the delegation wished to perform their prayers.

According to reports recorded by Ibn Isḥāq and other early historians, the Prophet ﷺ permitted them to worship according to their own religious practice within his mosque. Some Companions initially objected, but the Prophet ﷺ instructed that they be allowed to continue.

This incident has been cited by many Muslim scholars as an example of the Prophet's conduct towards visitors of other faiths who came peacefully to engage in discussion.

The principal subject of the dialogue concerned the identity of ʿĪsā (Jesus) عليه السلام.

The Christians of Najrān affirmed the doctrines traditionally held within their community concerning Jesus, while the Prophet ﷺ explained the Qur'anic teaching that ʿĪsā عليه السلام was one of the greatest messengers of Allah, born miraculously to Maryam (Mary) عليها السلام without a human father, but not divine.

During these discussions, Allah revealed verses addressing the nature of ʿĪsā عليه السلام and correcting what the Qur'an identifies as theological misunderstandings concerning him.

These revelations formed the basis of one of the most important theological dialogues recorded during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

The Qur'anic Response Concerning ʿĪsā (Jesus) عليه السلام

During the discussions with the Christian delegation of Najrān, the central issue was the nature of ʿĪsā (Jesus) عليه السلام.

The delegation acknowledged his miraculous birth, his extraordinary miracles and his unique position among the prophets. They argued that these qualities supported their theological understanding of him.

The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ responded by conveying the revelation that Allah had sent regarding ʿĪsā عليه السلام.

The Qur'an affirmed his miraculous birth while rejecting the conclusion that this established his divinity.

Allah revealed:

"Indeed, the example of ʿĪsā before Allah is like that of Ādam. He created him from dust, then said to him, 'Be,' and he was."

Qur'an 3:59

The verse drew a comparison between the creation of ʿĪsā and that of Ādam عليهما السلام.

If the absence of a human father were evidence of divinity, then Ādam, who had neither father nor mother, would have a greater claim. Instead, both were created by the command of Allah, demonstrating His absolute power over creation.

The Qur'an further instructed the Prophet ﷺ:

"The truth is from your Lord, so do not be among those who doubt."

Qur'an 3:60

The discussion also reflected the broader Qur'anic teaching concerning ʿĪsā عليه السلام found elsewhere in the Qur'an.

Allah repeatedly describes him as His servant, His messenger, His word conveyed to Maryam and a spirit created by His command, while consistently affirming that worship belongs to Allah alone.

The Prophet ﷺ presented these revelations to the delegation with clarity and respect.

The dialogue remained centred upon scripture and reason rather than hostility or coercion.

Despite listening carefully to the Qur'anic explanation, the delegation did not accept the Prophet's understanding concerning the nature of ʿĪsā عليه السلام.

The theological disagreement therefore remained unresolved.

At this point, Allah revealed a further instruction to the Prophet ﷺ concerning how the discussion should proceed if, after the evidence had been presented, the disagreement continued. This revelation led to the event known in Islamic history as al-Mubāhalah—the mutual invocation of Allah's judgement upon those who knowingly reject the truth.

The Event of al-Mubāhalah

After the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ had conveyed the Qur'anic revelation concerning ʿĪsā (Jesus) عليه السلام and the discussions with the delegation of Najrān reached an impasse, Allah revealed a further instruction.

He commanded:

"Then whoever argues with you concerning him after the knowledge that has come to you, say: 'Come, let us call our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves; then let us earnestly pray and invoke the curse of Allah upon those who lie.'"

Qur'an 3:61

This event became known as al-Mubāhalah, meaning the mutual invocation of Allah's judgement upon whichever party knowingly persisted in falsehood after the evidence had been presented.

According to the authentic narrations, the Prophet ﷺ accepted Allah's command and prepared for the appointed meeting.

He was accompanied by his daughter Fāṭimah رضي الله عنها, her husband ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه, and their two sons, al-Ḥasan and al-Ḥusayn رضي الله عنهما.

When the delegation of Najrān saw the Prophet ﷺ approaching with his closest family members, they recognised the seriousness with which he accepted the divine command.

According to the early historical sources, their leading bishop advised the delegation not to proceed with the Mubāhalah.

He is reported to have said that he saw faces which, if they were to ask Allah to move a mountain from its place, He would do so. He warned that if they proceeded and the Prophet ﷺ was truthful, they would not prosper.

The delegation therefore declined the invitation to Mubāhalah.

Instead, they requested that the matter be resolved peacefully.

The Prophet ﷺ accepted their decision.

No curse was invoked, and no confrontation took place.

The event concluded not with conflict but with negotiation.

The willingness of the Prophet ﷺ to accept a peaceful resolution demonstrated that the purpose of the Qur'anic challenge was not to compel participation but to establish the sincerity of the parties after the evidence had been presented.

The delegation's decision to withdraw from the Mubāhalah brought the theological discussion to a close and opened the way for a formal agreement between the Muslim community and the Christians of Najrān. 

The Treaty with the Christians of Najrān

After declining the invitation to al-Mubāhalah, the delegation of Najrān chose to conclude a peaceful agreement with the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ rather than continue the theological dispute.

The Prophet ﷺ accepted their decision and entered into a treaty that guaranteed the security of the Christian community of Najrān.

According to the historical sources, the agreement protected their lives, property, churches and religious practices.

The treaty declared that the Christians of Najrān would remain under the protection of Allah and His Messenger ﷺ.

Their bishops, priests and monks would not be removed from their positions, nor would their churches be confiscated or destroyed so long as they honoured the terms of the agreement.

In return, the people of Najrān agreed to live peacefully with the Muslim community and to pay the jizyah, the tax levied upon non-Muslim communities living under the protection of the Islamic state in lieu of military service and the payment of zakāh, which remained an obligation upon Muslims.

The Prophet ﷺ also prohibited oppression against them.

According to the terms preserved in the early historical sources, no injustice was to be committed against the people of Najrān, nor were they to be burdened beyond the obligations agreed in the treaty.

To assist in implementing the agreement and teaching the people, the Prophet ﷺ appointed Abū ʿUbaydah ibn al-Jarrāḥ رضي الله عنه to accompany the delegation.

The Prophet ﷺ described him as:

"Every nation has a trustworthy man, and the trustworthy man of this nation is Abū ʿUbaydah ibn al-Jarrāḥ."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 3744); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 2419)

The treaty with Najrān became one of the best-known examples of the Prophet's ﷺ agreements with non-Muslim communities.

It demonstrated that theological disagreement did not prevent the establishment of peaceful political and legal relations. Although the Christians of Najrān did not accept Islam, they were permitted to retain their faith while living under the protection of the Muslim state according to the terms of their agreement.

The delegation then departed from Madinah, bringing to a close one of the most significant religious dialogues recorded during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

Historical Significance

The meeting between the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and the Christian delegation of Najrān stands as one of the most important interfaith encounters recorded in the Sīrah.

Unlike many of the major events of the Prophet's ﷺ mission, the visit was not characterised by military confrontation but by theological dialogue, the presentation of revelation and the peaceful conclusion of a formal treaty.

Throughout the discussions, the Prophet ﷺ presented the Qur'anic teaching concerning ʿĪsā (Jesus) عليه السلام, affirming his miraculous birth, his prophethood and the many miracles granted to him by Allah, while rejecting the attribution of divinity to him.

The dialogue also established the Qur'anic comparison between the creation of ʿĪsā عليه السلام and that of Ādam عليه السلام, demonstrating that miraculous creation does not alter the distinction between the Creator and His creation.

The event of al-Mubāhalah occupies a unique place in Islamic history.

Although Allah revealed the command permitting the mutual invocation of His judgement, the delegation chose not to proceed, and the Prophet ﷺ accepted a peaceful settlement without compulsion. The encounter therefore concluded through agreement rather than conflict.

The treaty with Najrān further demonstrated the Prophet's ﷺ approach to relations with non-Muslim communities that lived peacefully with the Muslim state. The agreement protected their lives, property, places of worship and religious leadership while defining their mutual obligations under the treaty.

For Muslim scholarship, the discussions with the Christians of Najrān remain among the principal historical contexts for understanding the Qur'anic passages concerning ʿĪsā عليه السلام in Sūrat Āl ʿImrān. They also illustrate the Qur'anic method of engaging theological disagreement through evidence, dialogue and reasoned discussion before any legal or political arrangements were concluded.

The delegation of Najrān was among the last major diplomatic missions received by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ before his final pilgrimage. With the Arabian Peninsula now largely united under Islam or peaceful treaty, only the concluding public events of his mission remained. The following year, the Prophet ﷺ would lead the Muslims in the only Hajj he performed after the completion of the religion, an event remembered throughout history as the Farewell Pilgrimage (Ḥajjat al-Wadāʿ).