The Battle of Mu'tah and the Conquest of Makkah

The Murder of the Prophet's Envoy

Following the diplomatic missions to the rulers of neighbouring lands, relations between the Muslim community and the northern Arab tribes became increasingly important. Several of these tribes were allied to the Byzantine Empire and served as a defensive frontier between Byzantium and the Arabian Peninsula.

Among the envoys dispatched by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was al-Ḥārith ibn ʿUmayr al-Azdī رضي الله عنه. He was entrusted with a letter addressed to the Ghassānid governor of Busra, one of the principal Byzantine frontier cities in southern Syria.

Diplomatic envoys occupied a protected status throughout Arabia and the neighbouring empires. According to long-established custom, messengers were not to be harmed regardless of the political differences between the parties they represented. Their safe conduct was regarded as essential to diplomacy.

As al-Ḥārith travelled north, he was intercepted near Muʾtah by Shuraḥbīl ibn ʿAmr al-Ghassānī, a Byzantine-allied governor who exercised authority in the region.

Shuraḥbīl questioned the envoy regarding his destination and the purpose of his journey.

When al-Ḥārith identified himself as the Messenger of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, Shuraḥbīl ordered his execution.

The envoy was killed without being permitted to deliver the Prophet's letter.

The execution of an accredited ambassador was regarded as an exceptionally serious violation of the accepted customs governing relations between states and tribes. According to the early Islamic sources, this was the only envoy sent by the Prophet ﷺ who was deliberately killed while carrying out his diplomatic mission.

When news reached Madinah, the Prophet ﷺ recognised the gravity of the incident. The murder of an envoy was not merely an attack upon an individual but an assault upon the diplomatic immunity that made peaceful communication between peoples possible.

The Prophet ﷺ therefore resolved to send an expedition towards the region where the crime had occurred.

Unlike earlier expeditions directed against tribes within Arabia, this force would march towards territory influenced by the Byzantine Empire and its Arab allies. It marked the first time the Muslims prepared to confront an organised military force operating under Byzantine authority.

The Prophet ﷺ assembled an army of approximately three thousand men.

Although considerably smaller than the armies maintained by the Byzantine Empire, it was the largest Muslim force dispatched to that point in the history of Islam.

Before the army departed, the Prophet ﷺ appointed its commanders in a clearly defined order.

He said that Zayd ibn Ḥārithah رضي الله عنه would command the expedition.

If Zayd were killed, command would pass to Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه.

If Jaʿfar were also killed, command would pass to ʿAbdullāh ibn Rawāḥah رضي الله عنه.

By appointing successive commanders before the expedition began, the Prophet ﷺ ensured that leadership would continue even if casualties occurred during the campaign.

The Muslim army departed Madinah and travelled north towards the region of Muʾtah.

As they advanced, reports began reaching them that the forces awaiting them were far larger than they had anticipated. What had begun as an expedition responding to the unlawful killing of an envoy was about to become one of the most formidable military challenges the Muslims had yet faced.

The Muslim Army Confronts an Overwhelming Force

The Muslim army continued its march north until it reached the region of Maʿān, on the southern approaches to Byzantine-controlled territory. It was there that the commanders received intelligence concerning the size of the force gathering against them.

According to the early Sīrah sources, Byzantine troops, together with their Arab Christian allies—particularly the Ghassān, Lakhm, Judhām, Balqayn and other tribes—had assembled in preparation for the Muslim advance.

The exact size of the opposing army differs considerably among the historical sources. Some early reports mention one hundred thousand men, while others mention as many as two hundred thousand. Modern historians generally regard these figures as exaggerated, noting the logistical difficulty of assembling and supplying armies of such size in the region. What is not disputed, however, is that the Muslim force of approximately three thousand men faced an army that was significantly larger and possessed greater material resources.

When the news reached the Muslim camp, the commanders halted at Maʿān and consulted one another.

Some suggested sending word to the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ informing him of the situation and requesting further instructions. They reasoned that he might either reinforce the army or direct them to adopt another course of action.

Others argued that they had not set out seeking numerical superiority but had gone forth in obedience to Allah and His Messenger ﷺ. They reminded the army that previous victories, including Badr, had not depended upon numbers alone.

Among those who addressed the Muslims was ʿAbdullāh ibn Rawāḥah رضي الله عنه.

He encouraged the army to remain steadfast, reminding them that they had not come for worldly gain but to uphold the truth and fulfil the mission entrusted to them.

His words strengthened the resolve of the soldiers.

After consultation, the commanders agreed to continue the march.

The army advanced until it reached the village of Muʾtah, where the opposing forces prepared for battle.

Before the fighting commenced, the Prophet ﷺ remained in Madinah.

Although separated from the army by hundreds of kilometres, he would later be informed by Allah of the progress of the battle as it unfolded.

The Muslim forces formed their ranks under the leadership of Zayd ibn Ḥārithah رضي الله عنه.

Facing them stood a much larger force composed of Byzantine troops and their allied Arab tribes.

The Martyrdom of the Three Commanders

The battle began with fierce fighting as the Muslim army advanced under the banner of Zayd ibn Ḥārithah رضي الله عنه, the first commander appointed by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. Despite the overwhelming numerical advantage of the opposing forces, the Muslims maintained their formation and engaged the enemy with determination.

Zayd carried the banner at the forefront of the army, encouraging the Muslims by both his leadership and personal example. He fought until he was struck repeatedly and was martyred while still holding the standard.

With Zayd's martyrdom, the command passed immediately to Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه, exactly as the Prophet ﷺ had instructed before the expedition departed from Madinah.

Jaʿfar took up the banner and pressed forward into the fighting.

According to the early Sīrah sources, when his horse became a liability amid the intensity of the battle, he dismounted and continued fighting on foot.

As the fighting intensified, Jaʿfar's right arm was severed while carrying the banner.

He seized the banner with his left hand.

When his left arm was also struck, he held the banner against his body so that it would not fall.

He continued fighting until he was martyred.

The early reports state that his body bore numerous wounds, most of them on the front of his body, reflecting that he had continued facing the enemy throughout the battle.

After Jaʿfar's martyrdom, the banner passed to ʿAbdullāh ibn Rawāḥah رضي الله عنه.

Before advancing, he paused briefly, encouraging himself to remain steadfast. He then entered the battlefield carrying the banner and fought until he too was martyred.

Thus, all three commanders appointed by the Prophet ﷺ before the expedition had now fallen exactly in the order he had announced in Madinah.

The Muslim army suddenly found itself without its designated leadership while still engaged against a much larger force.

Recognising the urgency of the situation, the Companions agreed that another commander had to be chosen immediately to prevent confusion within the ranks.

Their choice fell upon Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه.

Although Khālid had embraced Islam only a few months earlier, his military ability was already widely recognised. Before accepting Islam, he had been one of Quraysh's most accomplished commanders and had played a decisive role against the Muslims at the Battle of Uḥud. Since embracing Islam, however, he had dedicated those same abilities to the service of the Muslim community.

Khālid accepted the responsibility and took command of the army at one of the most critical moments of the battle.

Meanwhile, in Madinah, the Prophet ﷺ informed the Companions of the events as they were occurring, despite being far from the battlefield.

He said that Zayd had taken the banner and had been martyred.

Then Jaʿfar had taken it and had been martyred.

Then ʿAbdullāh ibn Rawāḥah had taken it and had been martyred.

The Prophet ﷺ became visibly moved as he spoke of their deaths.

He then announced that the banner had passed to one of "the swords of Allah," through whom Allah would grant relief to the Muslim army.

From that day, Khālid ibn al-Walīd became widely known by the title Sayf Allāh—"The Sword of Allah."

Khālid ibn al-Walīd Takes Command

When Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه assumed command, the Muslim army stood in an extremely dangerous position. Three successive commanders had been martyred, the enemy greatly outnumbered the Muslims, and the battle had already been fiercely contested.

Khālid quickly assessed the situation.

Rather than ordering an immediate withdrawal that could easily have become a disorderly retreat, he concentrated first on restoring cohesion within the ranks. The Muslim army maintained its discipline and continued resisting the enemy, preventing the larger force from exploiting the temporary loss of leadership.

According to the early historical sources, Khālid fought with exceptional determination throughout the engagement.

He later related that during the battle numerous swords broke in his hand because of the intensity of the fighting, until only a Yemeni sword remained with him.

Despite the pressure exerted by the opposing forces, the Muslims succeeded in preventing their lines from collapsing.

As night approached, the fighting subsided.

Khālid recognised that another day of battle under the same conditions would likely result in the destruction of the Muslim force. He therefore devised a strategy that would preserve the army while maintaining its honour.

Before dawn, he reorganised the entire formation.

Soldiers who had occupied the front ranks were moved to the rear.

Those previously positioned on the flanks exchanged places.

Units from the rear were brought forward.

The banners and formations therefore appeared different from those seen by the enemy on the previous day.

When the battle resumed, the Byzantine-allied forces observed what appeared to be unfamiliar troops and altered formations.

Some concluded that reinforcements from Madinah had arrived during the night.

Khālid then ordered a series of controlled attacks followed by carefully managed withdrawals, ensuring that the army never dissolved into panic. The Muslims fought whenever necessary while steadily disengaging from the battlefield.

The opposing forces pursued only cautiously.

Whether because they believed fresh Muslim forces had arrived or feared being drawn into an ambush farther south, they did not launch a full-scale pursuit.

Khālid successfully led the Muslim army away from Muʾtah without allowing the withdrawal to become a rout.

From a military perspective, the achievement was remarkable. An army that had lost all three of its appointed commanders while facing a substantially larger force was withdrawn in good order, preserving the lives of the majority of its soldiers.

Although the Muslims had not achieved a battlefield victory, neither had the Byzantine-allied forces succeeded in destroying the expedition or capturing its army. The disciplined withdrawal preserved the military strength of the Muslim community and demonstrated a level of leadership that would later distinguish Khālid throughout his campaigns.

The surviving Muslims then began the long journey back to Madinah, carrying with them the news of the martyrdom of Zayd ibn Ḥārithah, Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib and ʿAbdullāh ibn Rawāḥah رضي الله عنهم, together with the account of one of the most difficult engagements fought during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

The Prophet ﷺ Receives News of the Battle

While the Muslim army was still returning from Muʾtah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ remained in Madinah.

According to the authentic narrations, Allah informed the Prophet ﷺ of the progress of the battle while it was taking place, despite the great distance separating him from the battlefield.

The Prophet ﷺ gathered the Companions and described the events as they unfolded.

He informed them that Zayd ibn Ḥārithah رضي الله عنه had taken the banner and had been martyred.

He then said that Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه had taken the banner and had likewise been martyred.

After him, ʿAbdullāh ibn Rawāḥah رضي الله عنه had taken command and had also been martyred.

The Companions observed the sadness of the Prophet ﷺ as he spoke of each of the three commanders.

He then announced that the banner had been taken by one of the swords of Allah, through whom Allah granted victory—or relief—to the Muslims.

It was from this occasion that Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه became known by the title Sayf Allāh ("The Sword of Allah").

The Prophet ﷺ also visited the household of Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib.

He comforted Jaʿfar's family and instructed the Companions:

"Prepare food for the family of Jaʿfar, for there has come to them that which has occupied them."

Sunan Abī Dāwūd (Hadith 3132); Jāmiʿ al-Tirmidhī (Hadith 998); Sunan Ibn Mājah (Hadith 1610)

This instruction established the Sunnah of neighbours and relatives preparing food for a bereaved family, recognising that those affected by a death should be supported rather than burdened during their time of grief.

The Prophet ﷺ showed particular affection towards Jaʿfar's children.

He embraced them, supplicated for them and assured their family of Allah's favour upon Jaʿfar.

Regarding Jaʿfar himself, the Prophet ﷺ said that Allah had replaced his two arms, which had been severed while carrying the banner, with two wings in Paradise by which he flies wherever he wills.

For this reason, Jaʿfar became widely known among Muslims as Jaʿfar al-Ṭayyār ("Jaʿfar the Flyer") and Dhū al-Janāḥayn ("The Possessor of Two Wings").

When the Muslim army finally returned to Madinah, some people, seeing that the expedition had not achieved a military victory, referred to the soldiers as those who had fled from the battlefield.

The Prophet ﷺ immediately corrected them.

He said:

"They are not fugitives. Rather, they are those who will return to fight again, if Allah wills."

This statement affirmed that the withdrawal under Khālid's leadership had not been an act of cowardice but a disciplined military decision that preserved the army for future service.

Legacy and Historical Significance

Although the Battle of Muʾtah did not result in a decisive military victory for either side, it occupies a pivotal place in the Sīrah because it marked the beginning of direct contact between the Muslim community and the Byzantine frontier.

For the first time, the Muslims had confronted an army composed of Byzantine forces and their Arab Christian allies. Until this point, most military engagements had involved the tribes of Arabia or Quraysh. Muʾtah demonstrated that the Islamic state had entered a new stage in its development, one in which it would increasingly interact with the major powers beyond the Arabian Peninsula.

The expedition also demonstrated the maturity of the Muslim military command. Even after the martyrdom of all three commanders appointed by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, the army did not descend into confusion. Leadership passed smoothly to Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه, whose disciplined withdrawal preserved the fighting strength of the expedition under exceptionally difficult circumstances.

The battle further established the reputation of Khālid as one of the foremost military commanders in Islamic history. Although he had accepted Islam only a short time earlier, his conduct at Muʾtah earned him the title Sayf Allāh ("The Sword of Allah"), a title by which he became known throughout the remainder of his life.

For the Muslim community, the martyrdom of Zayd ibn Ḥārithah, Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib and ʿAbdullāh ibn Rawāḥah رضي الله عنهم represented a profound personal loss. Each had played a distinguished role in the development of the early Islamic state.

Zayd had been among the earliest Muslims, a trusted companion of the Prophet ﷺ and the only Companion mentioned by name in the Qur'an. Jaʿfar had led the migration to Abyssinia and represented Islam before the Negus with remarkable wisdom and courage. ʿAbdullāh ibn Rawāḥah had been one of the leading poets and supporters of the Prophet ﷺ, using both his words and his sword in the service of Islam.

Their sacrifice became an enduring example of steadfastness and loyalty.

From a strategic perspective, Muʾtah also carried an important political message. The Byzantine authorities and their Arab allies had expected to overwhelm a relatively small Muslim force. Instead, despite suffering the loss of its commanders, the Muslim army withdrew in good order and remained an effective fighting force. The campaign demonstrated that the Muslims could no longer be regarded as merely a local power confined to Madinah.

The battle also strengthened the confidence of many Arab tribes. They had witnessed a disciplined Muslim army confront one of the region's greatest military powers and return intact despite overwhelming numerical odds. This contributed to the growing recognition that the Islamic state had become a permanent and influential force within Arabia.

Muʾtah did not conclude the relationship between the Muslims and the Byzantine frontier. Instead, it prepared the way for later events, including the Expedition of Tabūk during the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime and, after his death, the campaigns that brought much of Syria under Muslim rule.

Banū Bakr Attack Khuzāʿah

Nearly two years after the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah was concluded, the peace it had established came to an abrupt end.

One of the provisions of the treaty had allowed the tribes of Arabia to freely choose whether to ally themselves with the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ or with Quraysh. Following the agreement, the tribe of Khuzāʿah entered into alliance with the Muslims, while Banū Bakr allied themselves with Quraysh.

Although open warfare between the Muslims and Quraysh had ceased, longstanding hostilities between Khuzāʿah and Banū Bakr had existed since before Islam. The treaty had effectively suspended these conflicts by placing both tribes under the protection of their respective allies.

The peace endured until Banū Bakr resolved to renew their old dispute with Khuzāʿah.

Taking advantage of the relative calm created by the treaty, Banū Bakr organised a surprise attack against Khuzāʿah. According to the earliest Sīrah sources, the assault took place at night near the watering place of al-Watīr.

The attack itself was not an isolated tribal skirmish.

Members of Quraysh secretly assisted Banū Bakr by supplying weapons. The early historical sources also report that several prominent men of Quraysh participated directly in the attack while concealing their identities under the cover of darkness. This assistance constituted a direct violation of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah, under which neither side was permitted to support attacks against the allies of the other.

Caught by surprise, members of Khuzāʿah attempted to escape towards the Sacred Precinct surrounding Makkah, believing that the sanctuary would protect them from further violence.

Despite reaching the area regarded throughout Arabia as inviolable, the attackers continued their pursuit.

According to the early Sīrah reports, several members of Khuzāʿah were killed after entering the sanctuary, violating not only the peace treaty but also the long-established sanctity of the Sacred Precinct itself.

The survivors fled into Makkah seeking safety.

Among the leaders of Banū Bakr was Nawfal ibn Muʿāwiyah, who urged the attackers to continue despite the sacred status of the area. His actions were later remembered as one of the clearest violations of the customs that even pre-Islamic Arabia generally respected.

When the fighting finally ended, Khuzāʿah had suffered several deaths and immediately recognised that Quraysh had broken the agreement concluded at Ḥudaybiyyah.

Realising that they could not obtain justice on their own, the leaders of Khuzāʿah resolved to invoke the alliance established by the treaty.

A delegation was quickly organised to travel to Madinah.

Its leader was ʿAmr ibn Sālim al-Khuzāʿī, who set out to place the events before the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and request that he fulfil the obligations of the alliance.

The attack at al-Watīr transformed what had been a local tribal conflict into an international treaty dispute. By assisting Banū Bakr against Khuzāʿah, Quraysh had violated one of the central provisions of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah. The consequences of that decision would soon alter the course of Arabian history and open the way for the Prophet's ﷺ peaceful march towards Makkah.

Khuzāʿah Appeals to the Prophet ﷺ

After the attack at al-Watīr, the surviving members of Khuzāʿah recognised that the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah had been violated. Unable to defend themselves against the combined support of Banū Bakr and Quraysh, they turned to the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, whose alliance they had entered under the terms of the treaty.

A delegation travelled from Makkah to Madinah under the leadership of ʿAmr ibn Sālim al-Khuzāʿī رضي الله عنه.

Upon arriving in Madinah, ʿAmr entered the Prophet's Mosque and addressed the Prophet ﷺ in the presence of the Companions. According to the early Sīrah sources, he recited verses describing the attack upon his people and appealed to the Prophet ﷺ to honour the alliance established at Ḥudaybiyyah.

He reminded the Prophet ﷺ that Khuzāʿah had stood with him when the treaty was concluded and that Quraysh had now supported Banū Bakr in violating its terms.

The Prophet ﷺ listened to the account without interruption.

When ʿAmr had finished, the Prophet ﷺ gave a brief but decisive reply:

"You have been helped, O ʿAmr ibn Sālim."

With these words, the Prophet ﷺ assured Khuzāʿah that the obligations of the treaty would be honoured and that they would not be abandoned after their allies had been attacked.

Soon afterwards, additional representatives from Khuzāʿah arrived in Madinah and provided further details of the assault. They described how Banū Bakr had attacked them by night, how Quraysh had secretly supplied weapons and men, and how the fighting had continued even after members of Khuzāʿah sought refuge within the Sacred Precinct.

The reports confirmed that the attack had not been the action of Banū Bakr alone.

Quraysh had directly assisted their allies, thereby breaching the very treaty that had preserved peace between Makkah and Madinah for nearly two years.

As news of the incident spread, some leaders of Quraysh began to realise the seriousness of what had occurred.

They recognised that their support for Banū Bakr had placed them in clear violation of the treaty and feared that the Muslims would now march on Makkah.

Seeking to preserve the agreement before it was too late, Quraysh decided to send their most influential statesman, Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb, to Madinah.

His mission was to renew the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah and prevent open conflict.

Before Abū Sufyān departed, however, the Prophet ﷺ had already begun making quiet preparations.

He instructed the Muslims to keep their plans confidential and prayed that Quraysh would remain unaware of the army's movements until he reached Makkah. The Prophet ﷺ desired to avoid unnecessary bloodshed and hoped that, if Makkah were approached unexpectedly, the city would surrender without resistance.

Abū Sufyān's Unsuccessful Mission to Madinah

Recognising the gravity of Quraysh's actions, the leaders of Makkah concluded that an attempt should be made to preserve the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah before the Muslims responded. They selected Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb, the most influential leader of Quraysh, to travel to Madinah and negotiate a renewal of the treaty.

When Abū Sufyān arrived in Madinah, he first went to the house of his daughter, Umm Ḥabībah رضي الله عنها, one of the wives of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

As he prepared to sit upon the bedding of the Prophet ﷺ, Umm Ḥabībah folded it away before he could do so.

Surprised, Abū Sufyān asked whether she considered him unworthy of the bedding or whether the bedding was too good for him.

She replied that it was the bedding of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ and that, because he remained a polytheist, she did not wish him to sit upon it.

The exchange demonstrated how completely faith had transformed the loyalties of the early Muslims. Although Abū Sufyān was her father, Umm Ḥabībah's foremost allegiance was now to Allah and His Messenger ﷺ.

Abū Sufyān then sought an audience with the Prophet ﷺ.

He proposed renewing and extending the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah.

The Prophet ﷺ did not accept the proposal and gave him no commitment.

Realising that his efforts had failed, Abū Sufyān attempted to obtain support from leading members of the Muslim community.

He approached Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه and asked him to intercede with the Prophet ﷺ.

Abū Bakr declined.

He then went to ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه.

ʿUmar responded even more firmly, making it clear that he would not support Quraysh after their violation of the treaty.

Abū Sufyān next approached ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه.

He asked ʿAlī to intervene on his behalf, but ʿAlī replied that the matter had already been decided by the Prophet ﷺ and that no one could alter his decision.

While in ʿAlī's home, Abū Sufyān also spoke with Fāṭimah رضي الله عنها. He suggested that her young son, al-Ḥasan رضي الله عنه, might publicly announce protection between the people and thereby restore peace.

Fāṭimah replied that her young son was not capable of granting such protection and that no one could make such a decision independently of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ.

Finding every avenue closed, Abū Sufyān returned once more to ʿAlī and asked what he should do.

ʿAlī advised him that, although it would not change the situation, he could stand before the people in the mosque and publicly announce that he sought to maintain peace between the two sides.

Abū Sufyān did so.

However, no one regarded his declaration as having any legal effect, and he received no response from the Prophet ﷺ.

Realising that his mission had failed completely, Abū Sufyān returned to Makkah.

When he informed Quraysh of what had happened, they immediately understood that no new agreement had been reached.

Meanwhile, in Madinah, the Prophet ﷺ continued his preparations in complete secrecy.

He instructed the Muslims to prepare for an expedition but did not publicly announce its destination. The objective was to prevent Quraysh from learning of the army's movements, thereby avoiding unnecessary resistance and reducing the likelihood of bloodshed.

Ḥāṭib ibn Abī Baltaʿah and the Final Preparations

As the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ completed his preparations for the march to Makkah, he took exceptional care to ensure that the destination of the expedition remained confidential. His objective was not to surprise Quraysh in order to destroy the city, but to prevent them from organising armed resistance that would inevitably lead to bloodshed within the Sacred Precinct.

During these preparations, an incident occurred that threatened to expose the entire plan.

Ḥāṭib ibn Abī Baltaʿah رضي الله عنه, one of the Muhājirūn and a veteran of the Battle of Badr, wrote a private letter to certain leaders of Quraysh informing them that the Prophet ﷺ was preparing to march on Makkah.

Unlike many of the Muhājirūn, Ḥāṭib had no powerful clan in Makkah to protect his family, who had remained there. Hoping to secure their safety, he entrusted the letter to a woman travelling towards Makkah, asking her to deliver it secretly.

Allah informed the Prophet ﷺ of the matter through revelation before the messenger reached Makkah.

The Prophet ﷺ immediately dispatched ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه, al-Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām رضي الله عنه and al-Miqdād ibn al-Aswad رضي الله عنه with instructions to intercept the woman at a place known as Rawḍat Khākh.

The Companions caught up with her and demanded the letter.

She denied carrying anything.

Knowing that the Prophet ﷺ had been informed by revelation, they continued searching and warned her that they would not leave until the letter was produced.

Realising that concealment was no longer possible, she removed the letter from where she had hidden it within her clothing and handed it over.

The Companions returned to Madinah with the letter.

When Ḥāṭib was brought before the Prophet ﷺ, he admitted writing it.

The Prophet ﷺ asked him what had led him to such an action.

Ḥāṭib replied that he had not acted out of disbelief, hypocrisy or affection for Quraysh over the Muslims. Rather, he explained that he had no tribal protection for his family in Makkah, unlike many of the other Muhājirūn, and had hoped that by doing Quraysh a favour they might protect his relatives from harm.

The Prophet ﷺ listened to his explanation.

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه, deeply troubled by what had occurred, requested permission to execute Ḥāṭib, considering his actions to be an act of treachery during a military expedition.

The Prophet ﷺ declined.

He reminded ʿUmar that Ḥāṭib had fought at the Battle of Badr and then said:

"He participated in Badr. Perhaps Allah looked upon the people of Badr and said: 'Do as you wish, for I have forgiven you.'"

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 3007); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 2494)

Hearing these words, ʿUmar accepted the Prophet's judgement and acknowledged that Allah and His Messenger ﷺ knew best.

The incident illustrated the Prophet's careful consideration of both justice and intention. While Ḥāṭib's action was unquestionably serious, the Prophet ﷺ distinguished between deliberate betrayal of the Muslim community and an error committed out of concern for one's family without any intention of abandoning Islam or assisting the enemy against the believers.

With the matter resolved, preparations continued in complete secrecy.

The Prophet ﷺ ordered the various tribes allied with the Muslims to assemble outside Madinah. In the days that followed, thousands of believers converged upon the city until the largest Muslim army ever assembled during the Prophet's lifetime stood ready to march.

The peaceful truce established at Ḥudaybiyyah had come to an end. The violation of the treaty by Quraysh and their allies, together with the failure of Abū Sufyān's diplomatic mission, had left no further avenue for reconciliation under its existing terms.

The Prophet ﷺ Marches Towards Makkah

Following the violation of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah by Quraysh and their allies, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ resolved to march upon Makkah. His objective, however, differed fundamentally from the campaigns that had characterised much of Arabian history. Rather than seeking revenge for years of persecution and warfare, he sought to bring Makkah under Muslim authority with the least possible bloodshed.

To preserve the element of surprise and prevent Quraysh from preparing a defence, the Prophet ﷺ kept the destination of the expedition confidential. The various Muslim tribes were instructed to assemble at Madinah without being informed publicly of where the army would march.

The response was unprecedented.

Muslims arrived from across the Arabian Peninsula until approximately ten thousand believers had assembled under the Prophet's command. It was the largest Muslim army gathered during his lifetime and reflected the remarkable transformation that had taken place since the Hijrah. Only eight years earlier, the Prophet ﷺ had left Makkah with a single companion while pursued by Quraysh. He now returned at the head of an army composed of believers from numerous tribes united by faith rather than tribal allegiance.

Before departing, the Prophet ﷺ supplicated that Allah would prevent Quraysh from obtaining reliable intelligence concerning the expedition. He wished to avoid unnecessary fighting by reaching Makkah before organised resistance could be prepared.

The Muslim army left Madinah during the month of Ramaḍān in the eighth year after the Hijrah.

As the army travelled south, additional tribes joined the expedition, further increasing its strength.

When the Muslims reached al-Juḥfah, they were met by al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib رضي الله عنه, the Prophet's uncle.

Al-ʿAbbās had embraced Islam some time earlier, although the exact timing of his acceptance is reported differently in the historical sources. Many scholars hold that he had accepted Islam before the Conquest of Makkah but had remained there for practical reasons until joining the Prophet ﷺ during this expedition. From this point onward, he accompanied the Muslim army.

The march continued until the Muslims reached Marr al-Ẓahrān, situated only a short distance from Makkah.

There, the Prophet ﷺ ordered the army to establish camp.

As night fell, he instructed that each group light its own fire.

Soon, thousands of campfires illuminated the valley.

The sight presented an extraordinary display of the size and organisation of the Muslim army. Never before had such a force assembled outside Makkah.

Within the city, Quraysh remained largely unaware of the approaching expedition.

Only when the fires became visible from the surrounding hills did they realise that a substantial army had reached the outskirts of Makkah.

Seeking information, Quraysh sent several men to investigate.

Among them was Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb, who only days earlier had returned unsuccessfully from Madinah after attempting to renew the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah.

Accompanied by Budayl ibn Warqāʾ al-Khuzāʿī and Ḥakīm ibn Ḥizām, Abū Sufyān approached the Muslim camp under the cover of darkness, hoping to discover the identity and intentions of the approaching force.

Abū Sufyān Embraces Islam

As Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb, Budayl ibn Warqāʾ and Ḥakīm ibn Ḥizām approached the Muslim encampment at Marr al-Ẓahrān, they were astonished by the sheer size of the army. The countless campfires stretching across the valley made it immediately clear that the Muslims had assembled a force unlike anything Quraysh had previously encountered.

While moving through the outskirts of the camp, they were recognised by al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib رضي الله عنه.

Knowing that, if discovered by other Muslims before reaching the Prophet ﷺ, Abū Sufyān might be treated as an enemy combatant, al-ʿAbbās quickly brought him under his protection and escorted him towards the Prophet's tent.

Along the way, they passed groups of Muslims guarding the camp.

When ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه recognised Abū Sufyān, he immediately requested permission from the Prophet ﷺ to execute the long-time leader of Quraysh, recalling the many years of persecution, warfare and hostility he had directed against the Muslims.

Al-ʿAbbās intervened, reminding the Prophet ﷺ that Abū Sufyān had come under his protection.

The Prophet ﷺ instructed that no harm should come to him and ordered that he be brought before him the following morning.

That night, Abū Sufyān remained under the protection of al-ʿAbbās.

The following morning, he was brought before the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

The Prophet ﷺ addressed him calmly, reminding him of the years that had passed and asking:

"Has the time not come for you to realise that there is no deity worthy of worship except Allah?"

Abū Sufyān acknowledged the truth of Allah's oneness.

The Prophet ﷺ then asked:

"Has the time not come for you to know that I am the Messenger of Allah?"

Abū Sufyān hesitated.

Having opposed the Prophet ﷺ for more than twenty years, he admitted that some uncertainty still remained in his mind regarding this question.

Al-ʿAbbās then encouraged him to embrace Islam before it was too late.

After further conversation, Abū Sufyān accepted Islam.

The Prophet ﷺ welcomed his acceptance without reproaching him for his long history of opposition.

Recognising Abū Sufyān's respected position among Quraysh, the Prophet ﷺ also chose to honour him in a manner that would encourage the peaceful surrender of Makkah.

He declared:

"Whoever enters the house of Abū Sufyān is safe. Whoever remains in his own house is safe. Whoever enters the Sacred Mosque is safe."

This proclamation served an important practical purpose.

Rather than humiliating the former leader of Quraysh, the Prophet ﷺ gave him a role in preserving peace within the city. It also reassured the people of Makkah that the approaching Muslim army had not come to seek indiscriminate revenge.

Before allowing Abū Sufyān to return to Makkah, the Prophet ﷺ instructed al-ʿAbbās to position him at a narrow pass through which the Muslim army would march.

From that vantage point, Abū Sufyān watched as the various tribes passed in disciplined formations under their respective banners.

As each contingent advanced, he asked al-ʿAbbās to identify the tribe.

The procession continued until the Prophet ﷺ himself passed with the Muhājirūn and the Anṣār.

Seeing the size, discipline and unity of the Muslim army, Abū Sufyān turned to al-ʿAbbās and remarked that the authority of his nephew had become immense.

Al-ʿAbbās replied that it was not worldly kingship but prophethood.

Abū Sufyān agreed.

He then hurried back to Makkah and announced to Quraysh that no force could withstand the approaching Muslims.

He repeated the Prophet's proclamation:

"Whoever enters the house of Abū Sufyān is safe. Whoever remains in his own house is safe. Whoever enters the Sacred Mosque is safe."

The Muslim Army Enters Makkah

As dawn broke, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ completed the final arrangements for the entry into Makkah.

To minimise the possibility of fighting, he divided the Muslim army into several columns, each assigned a different route into the city. This strategy prevented congestion at the entrances to Makkah and reduced the likelihood that large-scale resistance could be organised at any single point.

The Prophet ﷺ gave clear instructions to his commanders.

They were not to initiate fighting unless they were attacked.

The objective remained the peaceful occupation of the city, not its destruction.

Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه was assigned to enter from the lower part of Makkah.

Al-Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām رضي الله عنه was instructed to advance from another approach carrying one of the principal banners of the Muslim army.

Saʿd ibn ʿUbādah رضي الله عنه led one of the contingents of the Anṣār.

As the columns prepared to move, an incident occurred that demonstrated the Prophet's ﷺ determination to ensure that the conquest was characterised by mercy rather than vengeance.

According to the authentic reports, Saʿd ibn ʿUbādah declared:

"Today is the day of battle. Today the sanctity of the Kaʿbah will be made lawful."

When these words reached the Prophet ﷺ, he immediately corrected the impression they created.

The Prophet ﷺ declared:

"No. Today is the day on which Allah will honour the Kaʿbah. Today is the day on which the Kaʿbah will be clothed."

According to the early Sīrah sources, the Prophet ﷺ then transferred the principal banner from Saʿd to his son, Qays ibn Saʿd رضي الله عنهما, ensuring that the army entered Makkah under a proclamation of mercy rather than one of retribution.

The Muslim columns then advanced towards the city.

In accordance with the proclamation made through Abū Sufyān, the vast majority of the inhabitants remained inside their homes or sought refuge within the Sacred Mosque.

Most of Makkah therefore offered no resistance.

Only one group, composed of a number of determined opponents of Islam under the leadership of Ṣafwān ibn Umayyah, ʿIkrimah ibn Abī Jahl and Suhayl ibn ʿAmr's son, attempted to resist the advance of Khālid ibn al-Walīd.

A brief engagement followed in the lower part of the city.

After a short exchange, the resistance collapsed.

Several members of the attacking force were killed, while the remainder dispersed and fled. A small number of Muslims were also martyred during the encounter.

Apart from this isolated fighting, the conquest was accomplished without major bloodshed.

The Prophet ﷺ entered Makkah riding his camel with his head lowered in humility before Allah. The Companions observed that he bowed so deeply in gratitude that his beard almost touched the saddle.

His manner stood in striking contrast to the triumphant entries of victorious rulers known throughout history. After more than twenty years of persecution, exile and repeated warfare, the Prophet ﷺ entered the city of his birth not in arrogance but in humble thankfulness to Allah.

The Muslim army completed its occupation of Makkah with remarkable discipline.

The city that had expelled the Prophet ﷺ eight years earlier had now come under Muslim authority with only minimal fighting.

The Purification of the Kaʿbah

After entering Makkah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ proceeded directly to al-Masjid al-Ḥarām. For more than twenty years he had called his people to worship Allah alone, while the Kaʿbah, originally built by Ibrāhīm (Abraham) عليه السلام and Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) عليه السلام for the worship of Allah, remained surrounded by idols representing the polytheistic beliefs of Arabia.

As the Prophet ﷺ approached the Sacred House, he performed ṭawāf around the Kaʿbah.

According to the authentic narrations, he was riding his camel and used a bow or staff to point towards the Black Stone (al-Ḥajar al-Aswad) at the beginning of each circuit, saying "Allāhu Akbar."

Around the Kaʿbah stood approximately three hundred and sixty idols.

As the Prophet ﷺ passed them, he struck them with the staff or bow in his hand while reciting the words of the Qur'an:

"Truth has come, and falsehood has vanished. Indeed, falsehood is ever bound to vanish."

Qur'an 17:81

He also recited:

"Truth has come, and falsehood can neither originate nor restore anything."

Qur'an 34:49

As each idol was struck, it fell to the ground.

The destruction of the idols marked the end of organised idol worship within the Kaʿbah. The sanctuary that had long been the centre of Arabian polytheism was restored to the worship of Allah alone, in accordance with the purpose for which it had originally been established by Ibrāhīm and Ismāʿīl.

The Prophet ﷺ then requested the key of the Kaʿbah from ʿUthmān ibn Ṭalḥah رضي الله عنه, the hereditary keeper of its door.

After the Kaʿbah was opened, the Prophet ﷺ entered with several of his Companions.

Inside, he found images painted upon the walls, including representations associated with earlier prophets.

According to the authentic narrations, he ordered that these images be removed.

After praying inside the Kaʿbah, the Prophet ﷺ emerged and returned the key to ʿUthmān ibn Ṭalḥah.

Rather than removing the custodianship of the Kaʿbah from his family, the Prophet ﷺ confirmed their traditional responsibility, declaring that the key should remain with them as a trust to be inherited by their descendants. The family of Banū Shaybah continues to hold this responsibility to the present day.

Standing at the entrance of the Kaʿbah, the Prophet ﷺ then addressed the people of Makkah.

He praised Allah and reminded them that Allah had fulfilled His promise by granting victory to His Messenger.

He declared that all claims to vengeance arising from the pre-Islamic period were abolished and that the customs of the Age of Ignorance (Jāhiliyyah) based upon tribal pride and inherited privilege were brought to an end.

The Prophet ﷺ also reaffirmed the sanctity of Makkah.

He explained that Allah had made the city sacred from the day He created the heavens and the earth and that it would remain sacred until the Day of Resurrection. Fighting within the city had been permitted only for a brief period granted specifically to him during the conquest and would not again become lawful thereafter.

The Birth of Ibrāhīm رضي الله عنه

Māriyah al-Qibṭiyyah رضي الله عنها gave birth to Ibrāhīm رضي الله عنه, the son of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, in Madinah. The Prophet ﷺ was greatly pleased by his birth and named him Ibrāhīm, after the prophet Ibrāhīm (Abraham) عليه السلام.

Ibrāhīm رضي الله عنه lived for approximately eighteen months before becoming seriously ill. The Prophet ﷺ visited him during his final illness and remained with him as his condition deteriorated. When Ibrāhīm رضي الله عنه died, the Prophet ﷺ grieved deeply and wept.

The Prophet ﷺ said:

"The eyes shed tears and the heart grieves, but we say only what pleases our Lord. Indeed, we are deeply saddened by your departure, O Ibrāhīm."

Ibrāhīm رضي الله عنه was buried in al-Baqīʿ cemetery in Madinah. His death occurred during the lifetime of the Prophet ﷺ and was one of the personal losses he experienced during the final years of his life.

   

The General Amnesty

After purifying the Kaʿbah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ stood at its entrance while the people of Makkah gathered before him. Among them were many of the same individuals who had opposed his message from its earliest days. They had mocked him, persecuted his followers, plotted his assassination, driven him into exile and fought against him in battles over the previous two decades.

Now, however, they stood defeated.

The Prophet ﷺ possessed complete authority over the city.

The people of Makkah understood the customs of Arabia well. Victorious leaders commonly took revenge upon their former enemies, and many feared that they would now face the consequences of their long hostility towards the Prophet ﷺ and the Muslims.

The Prophet ﷺ addressed them by asking:

"What do you think I am going to do with you?"

They replied:

"You are a noble brother and the son of a noble brother."

Their answer acknowledged both his noble lineage and the hope that he would respond with mercy rather than vengeance.

The Prophet ﷺ then declared:

"No blame will there be upon you today."

He continued with words recalling those spoken centuries earlier by Yūsuf (Joseph) عليه السلام to his brothers after they had wronged him:

"No blame will there be upon you today. Allah will forgive you, and He is the Most Merciful of those who show mercy."

Qur'an 12:92

The Prophet ﷺ then announced:

"Go, for you are free."

With these words, the overwhelming majority of the inhabitants of Makkah received a general amnesty.

The decision was extraordinary by the standards of seventh-century Arabia.

Rather than exacting revenge upon a city that had persecuted him and his followers for more than twenty years, the Prophet ﷺ chose reconciliation. The conquest of Makkah was therefore characterised not by widespread punishment but by forgiveness and the opportunity for a new beginning.

Many of those who had previously been among the strongest opponents of Islam accepted the Prophet's clemency and embraced Islam. Men who had once commanded armies against the Muslims, including Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb, Ṣafwān ibn Umayyah and ʿIkrimah ibn Abī Jahl, would in time become devoted members of the Muslim community.

The general amnesty was not entirely without exception.

A small number of individuals were excluded because they were accused of particularly grave offences, including murder and repeated acts of treachery that extended beyond ordinary participation in the conflict between Makkah and Madinah.

Even in these exceptional cases, several later received pardon after sincerely embracing Islam or after respected Companions interceded on their behalf. As a result, only a very small number of those originally named were ultimately executed.

The policy adopted by the Prophet ﷺ reflected his stated objective throughout the expedition: to bring Makkah peacefully under Muslim authority while avoiding unnecessary bloodshed wherever possible.

The Removal of Idols and the Consolidation of Makkah

Following the general amnesty, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ remained in Makkah to establish the principles of Islam within the city and to remove the remaining centres of idol worship that had long existed throughout the surrounding region.

Although the idols within the Kaʿbah had been destroyed, numerous other shrines dedicated to tribal deities still existed in and around Makkah. These sanctuaries had been places of pilgrimage for generations and formed an important part of the religious life of pre-Islamic Arabia.

The Prophet ﷺ therefore dispatched trusted Companions to remove these idols peacefully wherever possible.

Among the most significant was al-ʿUzzā, one of the principal deities venerated by Quraysh and neighbouring tribes. The Prophet ﷺ sent Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه to Nakhlah, where the shrine of al-ʿUzzā stood.

Khālid destroyed the structure and returned to Madinah. According to the early Sīrah and Hadith sources, the Prophet ﷺ questioned him about what he had seen and instructed him to return. During the second visit, Khālid completed the destruction of the remaining sanctuary, after which the Prophet ﷺ declared that al-ʿUzzā would never again be worshipped.

Another important shrine was Manāt, revered particularly by the tribes of al-Aws, al-Khazraj and several other Arab tribes. The Prophet ﷺ sent Saʿd ibn Zayd al-Ashhalī رضي الله عنه to destroy the idol and bring an end to its worship.

Likewise, the idol Suwāʿ, worshipped by the tribe of Hudhayl, was destroyed by ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ رضي الله عنه according to the early historical reports.

These expeditions were directed against the idols and the shrines themselves rather than against populations. Many of the tribes whose idols were removed subsequently accepted Islam peacefully, recognising that the religious landscape of Arabia had fundamentally changed following the conquest of Makkah.

During his stay in the city, the Prophet ﷺ also renewed several important legal and religious principles.

He reaffirmed the sanctity of Makkah, declaring that its vegetation was not to be cut without necessity, its game was not to be hunted and lost property was to be treated according to the regulations established by Islamic law.

He further emphasised that the sanctity of the city was established by Allah Himself and was not the result of human custom or political authority.

The Prophet ﷺ also restored the practical administration of the Sacred Mosque.

The custodianship of the Kaʿbah remained with the family of Banū Shaybah, while the responsibility of providing water to the pilgrims remained with the descendants of al-ʿAbbās رضي الله عنه. By confirming these established responsibilities, the Prophet ﷺ preserved beneficial institutions while removing only those practices that conflicted with the worship of Allah alone.

The Gathering of Hawāzin and Thaqīf

The peaceful conquest of Makkah profoundly altered the balance of power in western Arabia. With Quraysh now having embraced Islam and the Sacred City under Muslim authority, many tribes recognised that the political landscape had changed permanently.

Not all tribes, however, were prepared to accept this new reality.

Among those most concerned were the tribes of Hawāzin and Thaqīf. Hawāzin was one of the largest tribal confederations in Arabia, while Thaqīf occupied the fortified city of al-Ṭāʾif, situated to the southeast of Makkah. Both possessed considerable military strength and feared that, if they delayed, they would eventually have to confront the Muslims under less favourable circumstances.

Their leader was Mālik ibn ʿAwf al-Naṣrī, a young but capable commander from Hawāzin.

Believing that swift action offered the greatest chance of success, Mālik called upon the tribes of Hawāzin, Thaqīf and several allied clans to assemble before the Muslims could consolidate their position following the conquest of Makkah.

According to the early Sīrah sources, Mālik adopted an unusual strategy.

He instructed the warriors to bring with them their families, livestock and possessions.

His reasoning was that, by placing everything they owned behind them, the men would be less likely to retreat from the battlefield and would instead fight with greater determination.

Not everyone agreed with this decision.

Among those present was Durayd ibn al-Ṣimmah, an elderly and highly experienced warrior who had participated in many battles during the pre-Islamic period. Although advanced in age and no longer able to fight, he was respected for his military judgement.

When Durayd learned that the women, children and livestock had been brought to the battlefield, he criticised the plan.

He argued that, if victory were achieved, the army would not need its families present to secure success. If, however, the battle were lost, the defeat would become far more devastating because their families and wealth would fall into the hands of the enemy.

Durayd advised Mālik to send the non-combatants back to safety and allow only the fighting men to engage the Muslims.

Mālik rejected the advice.

Confident in his own strategy, he insisted that the army would stand its ground and refused to alter his plans.

Meanwhile, news of the mobilisation reached the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ in Makkah.

The Prophet ﷺ recognised that the newly converted Quraysh, together with the Muslims who had accompanied him from Madinah, would soon face the first major challenge following the conquest of the city.

He therefore prepared the Muslim army to march.

The force that assembled numbered approximately twelve thousand men.

It consisted of the ten thousand Muslims who had entered Makkah during the conquest, together with around two thousand of the newly converted inhabitants of Makkah who now joined the expedition.

This was the largest Muslim army ever assembled during the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime.

Seeing the unprecedented size of their force, some among the Muslims remarked that they could not be defeated because of their numbers.

Although the statement reflected confidence rather than arrogance on the part of most, the campaign that followed would teach the Muslim community that victory is never guaranteed by numbers alone but comes only through the help of Allah.

The Prophet ﷺ led the army out of Makkah towards the valley of Ḥunayn, where the forces of Hawāzin and Thaqīf had already taken up concealed positions among the surrounding hills, preparing an ambush that would confront the Muslims with one of the most severe tests of their faith since the Battle of Uḥud.

The Pledge of Allegiance and the Establishment of Islamic Rule

With Makkah now under Muslim authority and the Kaʿbah restored to the worship of Allah alone, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ remained in the city to establish its administration according to the principles of Islam. His objective was not merely the military occupation of Makkah but its peaceful integration into the growing Muslim community.

Following the general amnesty, large numbers of the people of Makkah came before the Prophet ﷺ and pledged their allegiance. Many had already embraced Islam during the days surrounding the conquest, while others now publicly declared their faith after witnessing the Prophet's mercy and the peaceful manner in which the city had been brought under Muslim rule.

The Prophet ﷺ accepted their pledges without demanding compensation for the years of persecution and conflict that had preceded the conquest. Former enemies stood alongside those who had secretly accepted Islam years earlier, all entering the Muslim community upon the same basis of faith.

The men pledged their allegiance directly to the Prophet ﷺ, affirming their commitment to worship Allah alone, obey His Messenger and uphold the obligations of Islam.

The women of Makkah also came to offer their pledge.

The Prophet ﷺ accepted their allegiance upon the conditions revealed by Allah:

"O Prophet! When the believing women come to you pledging that they will not associate anything with Allah, nor steal, nor commit unlawful sexual intercourse, nor kill their children, nor bring forth a slander they have invented between their hands and feet, nor disobey you in what is right, then accept their pledge and ask Allah to forgive them. Indeed, Allah is Most Forgiving, Most Merciful."

Qur'an 60:12

According to the authentic narrations, the Prophet ﷺ accepted the pledge of the women without physical contact, receiving their oath verbally.

During his stay in Makkah, the Prophet ﷺ also reaffirmed a number of important legal principles.

He declared that the sacred city remained inviolable as Allah had decreed from the creation of the heavens and the earth. Its sanctity was not the result of human authority and could not be suspended except by Allah's command. He reminded the people that the limited fighting which had occurred during the conquest had been permitted only for that unique circumstance and did not alter the permanent sacred status of Makkah.

The Prophet ﷺ further prohibited practices inherited from the Age of Ignorance (Jāhiliyyah), including blood feuds and claims of hereditary privilege based upon tribal lineage. He emphasised that all people descended from Ādam عليه السلام and that true honour before Allah is determined by righteousness rather than ancestry.

He also confirmed the continuation of responsibilities connected with the Sacred Mosque. The custodianship of the Kaʿbah remained with Banū Shaybah, while the service of providing water to the pilgrims remained with the family of al-ʿAbbās رضي الله عنه. In doing so, the Prophet ﷺ demonstrated that Islam did not abolish established institutions simply because they predated Islam; rather, it preserved those that were just and beneficial while removing practices rooted in idolatry and injustice.

The Final Days in Makkah and the Transition to Ḥunayn

The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ remained in Makkah for approximately nineteen days after the conquest, during which time he supervised the peaceful transition of the city from its former pagan leadership to Islamic administration. Although Makkah had now entered the Muslim community, the Prophet ﷺ did not seek to centralise every matter in his own hands. Instead, he appointed capable individuals to oversee the affairs of the city while he prepared for the challenges that lay ahead.

Among the appointments made during this period was that of ʿAttāb ibn Asīd رضي الله عنه, whom the Prophet ﷺ appointed as governor of Makkah. Though still a young man, ʿAttāb was entrusted with administering the city, leading its people and overseeing their affairs according to the teachings of Islam.

The Prophet ﷺ also appointed Muʿādh ibn Jabal رضي الله عنه to remain in Makkah and teach the people the Qur'an, the principles of Islam and the practical obligations of their new faith. Large numbers had embraced Islam within only a few days, and many required instruction in prayer, purification, charity and the other foundations of Islamic life.

For many of the inhabitants of Makkah, these days marked a profound transformation.

Only a short time earlier, they had regarded the Prophet ﷺ as their greatest opponent. They now observed him exercising authority without oppression, administering justice without favouritism and showing mercy where revenge would ordinarily have been expected. The peaceful conduct of the conquest left a lasting impression upon many who had only recently entered Islam.

The conquest also transformed the political landscape of Arabia.

For generations, Quraysh had been recognised as the custodians of the Kaʿbah and the leading tribe of the Arabian Peninsula. Their acceptance of Islam therefore carried immense significance. Tribes throughout Arabia watched closely, recognising that the city which had resisted the Prophet ﷺ for more than twenty years had now accepted his leadership.

Many delegations that had previously remained undecided began reconsidering their position. If Quraysh—the strongest opponents of Islam and the guardians of the Sacred House—had now entered the Muslim community, many other tribes saw little reason to continue their opposition.

Not every tribe, however, reached that conclusion.

Among those who viewed the conquest with alarm were the confederation of Hawāzin and their allies from Thaqīf. Rather than waiting for the influence of Islam to extend further into their territories, they resolved to confront the Muslims while the Prophet ﷺ was still in Makkah.

Under the leadership of Mālik ibn ʿAwf al-Naṣrī, they gathered a large army and advanced towards the valley of Ḥunayn. Their intention was to launch a decisive attack before the Muslims had fully consolidated their recent victory.

News of this mobilisation soon reached the Prophet ﷺ.

Recognising that the threat required an immediate response, he prepared the Muslim army to leave Makkah only days after its peaceful conquest. Many of the newly converted Quraysh joined the expedition, marching alongside the Muhājirūn and the Anṣār in defence of the Muslim community.