The Farewell Pilgrimage and Final Illness

The Announcement of the Pilgrimage

In the tenth year after the Hijrah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ announced that he intended to perform the pilgrimage to Makkah.

This would be the first and only Hajj performed personally by the Prophet ﷺ after the conquest of Makkah, the purification of the Kaʿbah from idolatry and the proclamation made during the previous year's pilgrimage abolishing the remaining pagan practices associated with the Sacred Sanctuary.

News of the Prophet's intention spread rapidly throughout the Arabian Peninsula.

Muslims from every region travelled to Madinah to accompany him, eager to learn directly from the Messenger of Allah ﷺ how the rites of Hajj were to be performed. Many understood that this would be a unique opportunity to observe his practice and receive instruction from him personally.

According to the authentic narrations, tens of thousands of Muslims joined the pilgrimage. The exact number is reported differently in the historical sources, but it is generally estimated that more than one hundred thousand believers participated in the journey.

On the twenty-fifth of Dhū al-Qaʿdah in the tenth year after the Hijrah, the Prophet ﷺ departed from Madinah.

Before leaving, he appointed Abū Dujānah al-Anṣārī رضي الله عنه, or according to other authentic reports Sibāʿ ibn ʿUrfuṭah al-Ghifārī رضي الله عنه, to oversee the affairs of Madinah during his absence.

The Prophet ﷺ travelled to Dhū al-Ḥulayfah, the designated mīqāt for the people of Madinah.

There he performed ghusl, applied perfume before entering the state of iḥrām and prayed before commencing the pilgrimage.

The Prophet ﷺ marked the sacrificial animals that had been brought with him and entered into the state of iḥrām for Ḥajj al-Qirān, combining ʿUmrah and Hajj in a single pilgrimage while remaining continuously in iḥrām because he had brought sacrificial animals with him.

As he entered iḥrām, the Prophet ﷺ began reciting the Talbiyah:

"Labbayka Allāhumma labbayk. Labbayka lā sharīka laka labbayk. Inna al-ḥamda wa al-niʿmata laka wa al-mulk. Lā sharīka lak."

"Here I am, O Allah, here I am. Here I am; You have no partner, here I am. Indeed, all praise, every blessing and all sovereignty belong to You. You have no partner."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 1549); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1184)

The Companions joined him in reciting the Talbiyah, and its words echoed throughout the desert as the caravan proceeded towards Makkah.

Throughout the journey, the Prophet ﷺ instructed the pilgrims regarding the rulings of iḥrām and demonstrated the conduct expected during the pilgrimage.

His actions during this Hajj would become the primary practical source for the Islamic rites of pilgrimage, preserved by the Companions and transmitted through authentic narrations to subsequent generations.

Arrival in Makkah and the Beginning of the Pilgrimage

After travelling from Madinah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and the Muslims accompanying him reached Makkah during the month of Dhū al-Ḥijjah.

As the Prophet ﷺ entered al-Masjid al-Ḥarām, he proceeded directly towards the Kaʿbah.

Upon reaching the Black Stone (al-Ḥajar al-Aswad), he touched it and kissed it. When circumstances prevented direct access, he indicated towards it with his staff, as established in the authentic narrations.

The Prophet ﷺ then began ṭawāf, circumambulating the Kaʿbah seven times.

During the first three circuits, he performed ramal, walking briskly with shortened steps, while the remaining four circuits were completed at a normal pace. This practice commemorated the strength and determination shown by the Muslims during the Compensatory ʿUmrah following the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah.

After completing the seven circuits, the Prophet ﷺ recited:

"And take the standing place of Ibrāhīm as a place of prayer."

Qur'an 2:125

He then prayed two units (rakʿahs) behind Maqām Ibrāhīm before returning once more to the Black Stone.

The Prophet ﷺ next proceeded to the hill of Ṣafā to begin the saʿy between Ṣafā and Marwah.

Upon approaching Ṣafā, he recited:

"Indeed, Ṣafā and Marwah are among the symbols of Allah."

Qur'an 2:158

He then said:

"I begin with that which Allah began."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1218)

Standing upon Ṣafā, the Prophet ﷺ faced the Kaʿbah, proclaimed the greatness of Allah, declared His Oneness and supplicated.

He then descended towards Marwah.

Between the two green markers in the valley, he hastened his pace before resuming his normal walk until he reached Marwah.

This journey between Ṣafā and Marwah was completed seven times, ending at Marwah.

After completing the saʿy, the Prophet ﷺ addressed the Companions who had not brought sacrificial animals with them.

He instructed them to leave the state of iḥrām, trim or shave their hair and regard their pilgrimage at that stage as ʿUmrah. They would then re-enter iḥrām later for Hajj.

Some Companions initially found this instruction difficult because they had expected to remain continuously in iḥrām until the completion of Hajj.

When they hesitated, the Prophet ﷺ clarified the ruling, saying that had he not brought sacrificial animals with him, he would also have left iḥrām after completing the ʿUmrah.

Since the Prophet ﷺ had brought sacrificial animals from Madinah, he remained in the state of iḥrām, thereby completing Ḥajj al-Qirān.

The Companions who had not brought sacrificial animals complied with the Prophet's instruction, establishing the legal basis for Ḥajj al-Tamattuʿ, while the Prophet ﷺ himself demonstrated the rites of Ḥajj al-Qirān through his own practice.

The Day of ʿArafah

On the eighth day of Dhū al-Ḥijjah (Yawm al-Tarwiyah), the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ departed from Makkah with the pilgrims and proceeded to Minā.

There, he performed the Ẓuhr, ʿAṣr, Maghrib, ʿIshāʾ and Fajr prayers, shortening the four-unit prayers while remaining in Minā until after sunrise on the following morning.

After sunrise on the ninth of Dhū al-Ḥijjah, the Prophet ﷺ travelled from Minā to the Plain of ʿArafah.

A large tent had been prepared for him at Namirah on the edge of ʿArafah. He remained there until the sun had passed its zenith.

When the time for Ẓuhr arrived, the Prophet ﷺ rode into the valley of ʿUranah, where he addressed the assembled pilgrims with what became known as the Farewell Sermon.

After delivering the sermon, Bilāl ibn Rabāḥ رضي الله عنه called the adhān.

The Prophet ﷺ then led the people in the Ẓuhr prayer, followed immediately by the ʿAṣr prayer, combining the two prayers at the time of Ẓuhr with a single adhān and separate iqāmahs.

After completing the prayers, the Prophet ﷺ rode into the Plain of ʿArafah and stopped near the rocky hill known as Jabal al-Raḥmah.

He remained standing upon his mount, facing the qiblah, raising his hands in supplication and remembrance of Allah until sunset.

He devoted the afternoon to duʿāʾ, glorification of Allah and earnest supplication.

The Prophet ﷺ declared:

"The best supplication is the supplication made on the Day of ʿArafah. The best that I and the prophets before me have said is: 'There is no deity worthy of worship except Allah alone. He has no partner. To Him belongs the dominion and all praise, and He has power over all things.'"

Jāmiʿ al-Tirmidhī (Hadith 3585)

He also emphasised the significance of this day by saying:

"Ḥajj is ʿArafah."

Jāmiʿ al-Tirmidhī (Hadith 889); Sunan al-Nasāʾī (Hadith 3016); Sunan Ibn Mājah (Hadith 3015)

As the sun began to set, the Prophet ﷺ remained in ʿArafah until sunset had completely passed.

He instructed the pilgrims to depart calmly and with dignity, reminding them that haste and pushing through the crowds were not acts of righteousness.

The standing at ʿArafah became the central rite of the pilgrimage, and the Prophet's ﷺ conduct on that day established the manner in which Muslims have observed this pillar of Hajj ever since.

From ʿArafah to Muzdalifah

After the sun had completely set on the ninth of Dhū al-Ḥijjah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ departed from the Plain of ʿArafah.

He instructed the pilgrims to proceed calmly and with dignity, reminding them that righteousness was not demonstrated by rushing or pushing through the crowds.

Usāmah ibn Zayd رضي الله عنه rode behind the Prophet ﷺ as they travelled from ʿArafah towards Muzdalifah.

During the journey, the Prophet ﷺ maintained a moderate pace. Whenever he reached an open stretch of ground, he allowed his camel to move more quickly, but when the path became crowded, he slowed the caravan to avoid harming others.

Along the route, the Prophet ﷺ stopped briefly to relieve himself, performed wuḍūʾ and then continued the journey.

When asked whether he would perform the Maghrib prayer, he replied:

"The prayer is ahead of you."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 1670); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1280)

Upon reaching Muzdalifah after nightfall, the Prophet ﷺ performed the Maghrib and ʿIshāʾ prayers together, combining them with one adhān and two iqāmahs. He did not perform any voluntary prayers between them.

After the prayers, the Prophet ﷺ rested at Muzdalifah for the night.

Before dawn, he arose and performed the Fajr prayer at its earliest time.

He then proceeded to al-Mashʿar al-Ḥarām, where he faced the qiblah and devoted himself to the remembrance of Allah.

He glorified Allah, proclaimed His greatness, declared His Oneness and continued in supplication until the sky had become bright, though before sunrise.

Allah referred to this rite in the Qur'an:

"Then when you depart from ʿArafāt, remember Allah at al-Mashʿar al-Ḥarām. Remember Him as He has guided you, although before that you were surely among those who were astray."

Qur'an 2:198

Before leaving Muzdalifah, the Prophet ﷺ permitted the elderly, the weak, the women and those accompanying them to depart early so that they would not be exposed to excessive crowding at Minā.

The Prophet ﷺ himself remained until just before sunrise.

As the Muslims prepared to depart, he instructed Ibn ʿAbbās رضي الله عنهما to collect small pebbles for the stoning of Jamrat al-ʿAqabah.

Holding the pebbles in his hand, the Prophet ﷺ said:

"Use pebbles like these. Beware of excessiveness in religion, for those before you were destroyed because of excessiveness in religion."

Sunan al-Nasāʾī (Hadith 3057); Sunan Ibn Mājah (Hadith 3029)

After completing the remembrance of Allah at Muzdalifah, the Prophet ﷺ led the pilgrims towards Minā to perform the rites of the Day of Sacrifice.

The Day of Sacrifice at Minā

Before sunrise on the tenth of Dhū al-Ḥijjah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ departed from Muzdalifah and proceeded towards Minā.

As he travelled, he continued reciting the Talbiyah until he reached Jamrat al-ʿAqabah, the largest of the three stone pillars.

Upon arriving there, the Prophet ﷺ ceased reciting the Talbiyah and performed the first rite of the Day of Sacrifice.

Using seven small pebbles, he stoned Jamrat al-ʿAqabah, saying "Allāhu Akbar" with each throw.

The Companions carefully observed the manner in which he performed the rite, preserving it as the established Sunnah for future generations.

After completing the stoning, the Prophet ﷺ proceeded to the place of sacrifice.

Because he was performing Ḥajj al-Qirān, the sacrifice was obligatory for him.

According to the authentic narrations, the Prophet ﷺ personally sacrificed sixty-three camels, corresponding to the years of his life. He then asked ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه to complete the sacrifice of the remainder until one hundred camels had been offered.

The Prophet ﷺ instructed that a portion of the meat from each camel be cooked together.

He and ʿAlī ate from the meat and drank from its broth, demonstrating that the sacrificial animals were lawful to eat.

After the sacrifice, the Prophet ﷺ shaved his head.

He first gave the right side of his hair to Abū Ṭalḥah al-Anṣārī رضي الله عنه for distribution among the people, then the left side, allowing the Companions to preserve portions of his blessed hair.

The Prophet ﷺ then supplicated:

**"O Allah, have mercy upon those who shave their heads."

The Companions asked:

"And those who shorten their hair, O Messenger of Allah?"

He again said:

**"O Allah, have mercy upon those who shave their heads."

They repeated their question.

The Prophet ﷺ repeated the supplication a third time before finally saying:

"And upon those who shorten their hair."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 1727); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1301)

After completing these rites, the Prophet ﷺ left the state of iḥrām, although marital relations remained prohibited until the remaining rites of Hajj had been completed.

He then travelled to Makkah, where he performed Ṭawāf al-Ifāḍah, one of the essential pillars of Hajj.

After completing the ṭawāf, he returned to Minā, where he spent the nights prescribed for the Days of Tashrīq in accordance with the command of Allah.

The Days of Tashrīq

After completing Ṭawāf al-Ifāḍah in Makkah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ returned to Minā, where he remained during the Days of Tashrīq—the eleventh, twelfth and, for those who chose to remain, the thirteenth of Dhū al-Ḥijjah.

These days were devoted to the remembrance of Allah, the completion of the remaining rites of Hajj and the continued instruction of the pilgrims.

Allah revealed:

"And remember Allah during the appointed days. Whoever hastens to leave after two days, there is no sin upon him, and whoever delays, there is no sin upon him—for the one who is mindful of Allah. And be mindful of Allah and know that to Him you will be gathered."

Qur'an 2:203

Each afternoon, after the sun had passed its zenith, the Prophet ﷺ performed the stoning of the three jamarāt.

He began with Jamrat al-Ūlā (the first pillar), throwing seven pebbles and saying "Allāhu Akbar" with each throw.

After completing the stoning, he moved to one side, faced the qiblah and stood for a prolonged period making duʿāʾ.

He then proceeded to Jamrat al-Wusṭā (the middle pillar), where he again threw seven pebbles, proclaimed the greatness of Allah with each throw and stood afterwards in lengthy supplication.

Finally, he approached Jamrat al-ʿAqabah (the largest pillar), threw seven pebbles while saying "Allāhu Akbar" with each throw, but did not remain there afterwards for supplication.

The Companions carefully observed both the order and manner in which the Prophet ﷺ performed these rites, preserving them as the Sunnah of the pilgrimage.

During his stay in Minā, the Prophet ﷺ continued to teach the pilgrims.

Many people approached him seeking guidance regarding the sequence of the rites.

Some informed him that they had performed one rite before another—for example, shaving before sacrificing, sacrificing before stoning or performing ṭawāf before another obligation.

On each occasion, the Prophet ﷺ replied:

**"Do it, and there is no harm."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 1736); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1306)

These responses established an important legal principle that the order of several rites performed on the Day of Sacrifice could be varied without invalidating the pilgrimage.

Throughout the Days of Tashrīq, the Prophet ﷺ encouraged the believers to remember Allah frequently.

He said:

"The Days of Tashrīq are days of eating, drinking and the remembrance of Allah."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1141)

By his words and actions, the Prophet ﷺ demonstrated that Hajj was not merely a series of rituals but an act of worship centred upon obedience to Allah, gratitude for His blessings and continual remembrance of Him.

The Completion of the Pilgrimage

After completing the rites at Minā, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ remained there for the prescribed days before preparing to return to Makkah.

Before departing the Sacred City, he instructed the pilgrims that the final rite of Hajj should be the Farewell Circumambulation (Ṭawāf al-Wadāʿ).

He said:

"None of you should depart until his last act is at the House."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1327)

The Prophet ﷺ therefore performed the Farewell Ṭawāf before leaving Makkah.

He circumambulated the Kaʿbah seven times, thereby completing the final rite of his pilgrimage.

Women experiencing menstruation were exempted from this obligation.

When Ṣafiyyah bint Ḥuyayy رضي الله عنها began menstruating after already performing Ṭawāf al-Ifāḍah, the Prophet ﷺ was informed of her condition.

Upon learning that she had already completed the essential ṭawāf, he said:

"Then let her depart."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 1757); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1211)

This established the ruling that menstruating women who had already performed Ṭawāf al-Ifāḍah were excused from performing Ṭawāf al-Wadāʿ.

Having completed all the rites of Hajj, the Prophet ﷺ prepared to return to Madinah.

The pilgrimage had brought together Muslims from every region of the Arabian Peninsula.

Throughout the journey, the Prophet ﷺ had demonstrated every rite personally, answered the questions of the believers and clarified the rulings of Hajj through both his words and his actions.

His Farewell Pilgrimage became the definitive practical model for the performance of Hajj.

The Companions carefully observed every stage of the pilgrimage and transmitted these details through authentic narrations, making the Prophet's ﷺ practice the primary source for the rites of Hajj observed by Muslims throughout subsequent generations.

Historical Significance

The Farewell Pilgrimage occupies a unique place in the Sīrah as the only Hajj performed by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ after the completion of the purification of the Kaʿbah and the abolition of the remaining practices of the Age of Ignorance (Jāhiliyyah).

During this pilgrimage, the Prophet ﷺ demonstrated every major rite of Hajj through his own practice, establishing the model that would be followed by the Muslim community thereafter.

Throughout the journey, he repeatedly instructed the believers to learn the rites directly from him.

He said:

"Learn your rites of pilgrimage from me, for I do not know whether I will perform Hajj after this Hajj of mine."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1297)

These words caused many of the Companions to realise that the Prophet ﷺ was indicating that his earthly mission was drawing to a close.

The pilgrimage therefore became not only an act of worship but also the final public demonstration of many aspects of Islamic practice before his passing.

The Farewell Pilgrimage also united Muslims from every region of the Arabian Peninsula.

Men and women who had embraced Islam during the Year of Delegations, together with the Muhājirūn and the Anṣār who had accompanied the Prophet ﷺ throughout his mission, stood together in worship without distinction of tribe, lineage or social status.

The pilgrimage reflected the transformation that had taken place over the previous twenty-three years.

When revelation first descended in Makkah, the Prophet ﷺ was followed by only a small number of believers. During the Farewell Pilgrimage, well over one hundred thousand Muslims gathered behind him to worship Allah according to the guidance he had conveyed.

During the pilgrimage, the Prophet ﷺ also delivered the address that became known as the Farewell Sermon, in which he summarised many of the fundamental principles governing the religion, the rights and responsibilities of Muslims, the sanctity of life and property, justice, equality and adherence to the Qur'an and his Sunnah.

That sermon constitutes one of the most important public addresses in Islamic history and is best studied as a distinct event because of its comprehensive nature and enduring significance. It forms the next major section of the Sīrah.

The Death of Ibrāhīm رضي الله عنه

Ibrāhīm رضي الله عنه, the son of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and Māriyah al-Qibṭiyyah رضي الله عنها, died while still a young child. His death was a deeply painful loss for the Prophet ﷺ, who wept and expressed his grief while remaining patient and accepting Allah's decree.

The death of Ibrāhīm رضي الله عنه coincided with a solar eclipse. Some people believed that the eclipse had occurred because of his death. The Prophet ﷺ immediately rejected this belief and clarified that eclipses were not caused by the death or birth of any person.

He said:

"The sun and the moon are two signs among the signs of Allah. They do not eclipse because of the death or life of anyone. When you see them, pray and invoke Allah until the eclipse is clear."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Hadith 1060; Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Hadith 915

The Prophet ﷺ therefore used the occasion to correct a popular assumption rather than allowing his son's death to be associated with a supernatural event. He led the Muslims in the eclipse prayer and directed them to turn to Allah in prayer and supplication.

The Historic Address at ʿArafah

On the ninth day of Dhū al-Ḥijjah in the tenth year after the Hijrah, after the sun had passed its zenith, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ addressed the vast assembly of pilgrims gathered in the Valley of ʿUranah near the Plain of ʿArafah.

More than one hundred thousand Muslims had accompanied him on what became known as the Farewell Pilgrimage.

Realising that many of those present had never before heard the Prophet ﷺ address such a gathering, he began by drawing their full attention.

According to the authentic narrations, he said:

"Listen to me, for I do not know whether I shall meet you again after this year in this place."

The Companions understood from these words that the Prophet ﷺ was indicating that his earthly mission was approaching its completion.

He then asked the people:

"What day is this?"

They replied:

"It is a sacred day."

He asked:

"What month is this?"

They replied:

"It is a sacred month."

He then asked:

"What land is this?"

They replied:

"It is a sacred land."

Having established the sanctity of the day, the month and the place, the Prophet ﷺ declared:

"Indeed, your blood, your property and your honour are sacred to one another, just as this day of yours is sacred, in this month of yours, in this land of yours, until you meet your Lord."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 1741); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1679)

The Prophet ﷺ repeated the declaration to ensure that every person present understood its importance.

He then reminded the believers that every individual would ultimately stand before Allah and be held accountable for his or her deeds.

He said:

"You will meet your Lord, and He will question you about your deeds."

The Prophet ﷺ then asked the assembled pilgrims:

"Have I conveyed the message?"

They replied:

"Yes."

He raised his forefinger towards the sky and then pointed it towards the people, saying:

"O Allah, bear witness. O Allah, bear witness. O Allah, bear witness."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1218)

With these opening words, the Prophet ﷺ established the central themes of the sermon: the sanctity of human life, the accountability of every believer before Allah and the completion of the responsibility entrusted to him as the Messenger of Allah.

The Abolition of the Practices of the Age of Ignorance

After affirming the sanctity of life, property and honour, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ announced that the remaining oppressive customs of the Age of Ignorance (Jāhiliyyah) were abolished.

He declared that all claims arising from pre-Islamic blood feuds were cancelled.

He said:

"Every claim of blood revenge from the Days of Ignorance is abolished. The first blood claim that I abolish is that of Rabīʿah ibn al-Ḥārith ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1218)

By beginning with a member of his own family, the Prophet ﷺ demonstrated that justice would be applied equally and that no family, including his own, would receive special treatment.

He then abolished all outstanding usury (ribā) originating from the pre-Islamic period.

He proclaimed:

"All usury from the Days of Ignorance is abolished. You shall have your principal sums. You shall neither wrong others nor be wronged. The first usury that I abolish is the usury of al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1218)

Once again, the Prophet ﷺ began with his own family, cancelling debts owed to his uncle al-ʿAbbās رضي الله عنه before addressing the claims of anyone else.

This declaration marked the complete abolition of the exploitative system of usury that had become deeply rooted in Arabian society before Islam.

The Prophet ﷺ then warned the believers against following the path of satan, who sought to corrupt their religion and divide the Muslim community.

He said:

"Indeed, satan has despaired of ever being worshipped in your land, but he will be obeyed in matters that you consider insignificant. So beware of him regarding your religion."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1218)

The Prophet ﷺ also condemned the pre-Islamic practice of manipulating the sacred months for political or military advantage.

Some Arab tribes had altered the calendar by postponing or exchanging the sacred months to permit warfare when it suited their interests.

The Prophet ﷺ declared that time had returned to the order established by Allah since the creation of the heavens and the earth.

He reminded the people that the year consists of twelve months, of which four are sacred: Dhū al-Qaʿdah, Dhū al-Ḥijjah, Muḥarram and Rajab.

By abolishing blood vengeance, prohibiting usury, warning against satan and restoring the sanctity of the sacred months, the Prophet ﷺ reaffirmed that Islam had replaced the injustices and arbitrary customs of the Age of Ignorance with a society founded upon justice, accountability and obedience to Allah.

The Rights and Responsibilities of Men and Women

The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ then addressed the rights and responsibilities that govern family life, emphasising that marriage is founded upon mutual trust, responsibility and obedience to Allah.

He instructed the believers:

"Treat women well, for you have taken them as a trust from Allah, and intimacy with them has become lawful for you by the word of Allah."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1218)

The Prophet ﷺ reminded husbands that marriage is not merely a social contract but a covenant entered into before Allah. He therefore instructed men to fulfil their responsibilities with kindness, justice and compassion.

He also explained that spouses possess rights over one another.

Concerning the rights of husbands, he said:

"Your right over them is that they should not allow anyone whom you dislike to sit upon your bedding. If they do so, then admonish them in a manner that is not severe."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1218)

He then clarified the corresponding rights of wives:

"Their right over you is that you provide for them and clothe them according to what is reasonable."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1218)

By placing these rights side by side, the Prophet ﷺ established that both husband and wife bear obligations towards one another. Neither was granted unrestricted authority over the other; rather, each was accountable before Allah for fulfilling the rights entrusted to them.

The Prophet ﷺ also reminded the believers that these responsibilities were part of their religious duty.

Family life was to be governed by faith, justice and good character rather than by the customs and injustices that had prevailed during the Age of Ignorance.

His guidance reflected the Qur'anic principle:

"Live with them in kindness. If you dislike them, it may be that you dislike something while Allah has placed much good in it."

Qur'an 4:19

Through these instructions, the Prophet ﷺ affirmed the dignity of the family as the foundation of the Muslim community and reminded the believers that the strength of society depends upon the faithful fulfilment of the rights and responsibilities that Allah has established between its members.

Equality, Brotherhood and Adherence to the Revelation

The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ then reminded the believers that all Muslims are united by faith and that distinctions of race, tribe and lineage do not determine a person's worth before Allah.

He declared that every Muslim is the brother of another Muslim and that the rights of each believer are to be respected and protected.

The Prophet ﷺ said:

"Every Muslim is the brother of another Muslim, and the Muslims are brothers. It is not lawful for a Muslim to take anything belonging to his brother except with his willing consent."

Musnad Aḥmad (Hadith 22978); al-Bayhaqī, al-Sunan al-Kubrā

He further reminded the people that all human beings share a common origin.

According to the authentic narrations of the Farewell Sermon, he proclaimed:

"All mankind is from Ādam, and Ādam was created from dust. There is no superiority of an Arab over a non-Arab, nor of a non-Arab over an Arab; neither of a white person over a black person, nor of a black person over a white person, except through righteousness (taqwā)."

Musnad Aḥmad; al-Bayhaqī, Shuʿab al-Īmān (authenticated by a number of later scholars through its supporting chains)

These words reaffirmed the Qur'anic principle that honour before Allah is based upon righteousness rather than ancestry or ethnicity.

Allah revealed:

"O mankind, indeed We created you from a male and a female and made you peoples and tribes so that you may know one another. Indeed, the most honoured of you before Allah is the one who is most mindful of Him. Indeed, Allah is All-Knowing, All-Aware."

Qur'an 49:13

The Prophet ﷺ then reminded the believers of the responsibility to preserve and transmit the message of Islam faithfully.

He said:

"I have left among you that which, if you hold firmly to it, you will never go astray: the Book of Allah."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1218)

He concluded this portion of the sermon by placing a responsibility upon every person present:

"Let those who are present convey it to those who are absent. Perhaps the one to whom it is conveyed will understand it better than the one who heard it directly."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 1741); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1679)

With these words, the Prophet ﷺ entrusted the preservation and transmission of Islam to his followers, ensuring that the message revealed to him would be conveyed faithfully to future generations.

Historical Significance

The Farewell Sermon was the final comprehensive public address delivered by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ to the Muslim community during his lifetime. It brought together the essential principles that had been revealed over the twenty-three years of his prophethood, reaffirming the sanctity of human life, the inviolability of property and honour, the abolition of the injustices of the Age of Ignorance, the fulfilment of family responsibilities, the equality of all people before Allah and the obligation to preserve and convey the message of Islam.

The sermon also served as a public declaration that the Prophet ﷺ had fulfilled the trust entrusted to him.

After reminding the people that they would be questioned by Allah regarding his message, he asked:

"Have I conveyed the message?"

The people replied:

"Yes."

The Prophet ﷺ then raised his finger towards the sky and pointed towards the people, saying:

"O Allah, bear witness. O Allah, bear witness. O Allah, bear witness."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 1218)

The Companions understood from both the content of the sermon and the Prophet's ﷺ words during the pilgrimage that his mission was nearing its completion.

The principles proclaimed in the sermon continued to shape the Muslim community after his passing. Its emphasis upon justice, accountability, the fulfilment of trusts, respect for the rights of others and adherence to the revelation became foundational principles of Islamic belief, law and ethics.

The Farewell Sermon is preserved through numerous authentic narrations recorded in the major collections of Hadith. While individual reports differ slightly in wording or include additional statements, they collectively preserve the substance of the Prophet's ﷺ final public address.

Shortly after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Allah revealed one of the final major verses of the Qur'an, announcing the completion of the religion:

"Today I have perfected your religion for you, completed My favour upon you, and have approved for you Islam as your religion."

Qur'an 5:3

The revelation of this verse during the Farewell Pilgrimage confirmed that the message entrusted to the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ had reached its completion. It forms the next major event in the Sīrah.

The Revelation of Qur'an 5:3

During the Farewell Pilgrimage, while the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was standing at ʿArafah on the ninth day of Dhū al-Ḥijjah in the tenth year after the Hijrah, Allah revealed one of the most significant verses of the Qur'an.

Allah declared:

"Today I have perfected your religion for you, completed My favour upon you, and have approved for you Islam as your religion."

Qur'an 5:3

This revelation marked a decisive moment in the history of Islam.

After twenty-three years of revelation, the fundamental beliefs, acts of worship, moral teachings and legal principles of Islam had been completed. The religion delivered by the Prophet ﷺ had reached its final form, and no further religious legislation would be added after the completion of his mission except for a small number of verses revealed shortly thereafter.

The Companions immediately recognised the profound significance of the verse.

Among those present was ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه.

A Jewish scholar later said to him:

"If this verse had been revealed to us, we would have taken that day as a festival."

ʿUmar replied:

"I know the day on which it was revealed and the place where it was revealed to the Messenger of Allah ﷺ. It was revealed while he was standing at ʿArafah on a Friday."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 45); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 3017)

The coincidence of two blessed occasions—the Day of ʿArafah and the day of Jumuʿah—made the revelation especially memorable to the Companions.

The verse did not signify the end of Qur'anic revelation altogether.

Several verses were revealed after this occasion, including passages concerning financial transactions and other matters. Rather, the verse announced that the religion itself had been perfected and that the essential framework of Islam had been completed.

For the Companions, the revelation was a source of immense gratitude.

At the same time, some realised that the completion of the religion also indicated that the Prophet's ﷺ earthly mission was nearing its end. His responsibility to convey Allah's message had now been fulfilled, and the Muslim community would soon bear the responsibility of preserving and transmitting that message to future generations.

The Understanding of the Companions

The revelation of Allah's declaration that the religion had been perfected was received by the Companions with profound gratitude.

For many believers, it confirmed that Allah had completed His favour upon the Muslim community after years of revelation, struggle and sacrifice.

Not all of the Companions, however, reacted in the same way.

According to the authentic narrations, Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه understood that the completion of the religion also signified that the Prophet Muhammad's ﷺ mission was approaching its conclusion.

While many rejoiced at the perfection of Islam, Abū Bakr wept.

The Companions later came to understand the reason for his tears. The completion of the Messenger's ﷺ mission indicated that the time of his departure from this world was drawing near.

The Qur'an had already instructed the Prophet ﷺ:

"When the help of Allah and the victory come, and you see the people entering the religion of Allah in multitudes, then glorify the praise of your Lord and seek His forgiveness. Indeed, He is Ever Accepting of Repentance."

Qur'an 110:1–3

Although Sūrat al-Naṣr celebrates Allah's help and the widespread acceptance of Islam, the Prophet ﷺ understood it to indicate that his mission had been completed.

According to the authentic narration of Ibn ʿAbbās رضي الله عنهما, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه asked the senior Companions about the meaning of the sūrah.

When Ibn ʿAbbās explained that it signified the approaching end of the Prophet's ﷺ life, ʿUmar replied:

"I know no more about it than what you have said."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 4970)

The completion of the religion therefore marked not only the fulfilment of Allah's favour upon the believers but also the beginning of the final stage of the Prophet's ﷺ earthly life.

The responsibility of preserving the Qur'an, practising the Sunnah and conveying the message to future generations would soon rest upon the Muslim community that he had nurtured over the previous twenty-three years.

Historical Significance

The revelation of Qur'an 5:3 during the Farewell Pilgrimage represents one of the defining moments in the history of Islam.

By declaring that the religion had been perfected and Allah's favour completed, the verse affirmed that the essential beliefs, acts of worship, moral teachings and legal principles of Islam had been fully conveyed through the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

The verse also established an important theological principle.

No prophet would come after Muhammad ﷺ, and no new divine revelation would alter or replace the religion that Allah had completed. The responsibility of the Muslim community thereafter was not to introduce new revelation but to preserve, understand and faithfully practise the guidance that had already been revealed.

The Companions recognised the immense significance of this declaration.

Over the previous twenty-three years, they had witnessed the gradual revelation of the Qur'an, the establishment of the Muslim community, the migration to Madinah, the major battles, the peaceful conquest of Makkah and the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under Islam. The revelation of this verse confirmed that the divine mission entrusted to the Prophet ﷺ had reached its completion.

Although a small number of Qur'anic verses were revealed after this occasion, they did not introduce a new stage in the religion. Rather, they addressed particular legal matters during the final period of the Prophet's ﷺ life. The perfection of the religion announced in Qur'an 5:3 remained unchanged.

For the Prophet ﷺ himself, the completion of the religion signalled that his mission as the final Messenger of Allah had been fulfilled. Having conveyed the revelation, demonstrated its practical application and entrusted its preservation to his Companions, only the final weeks of his earthly life remained.

The Beginning of the Illness

Following the Farewell Pilgrimage, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ returned to Madinah.

During the months that followed, he continued leading the Muslims in prayer, teaching the Qur'an, receiving delegations and attending to the affairs of the growing Muslim community.

Towards the end of the eleventh year after the Hijrah, the Prophet ﷺ visited the cemetery of al-Baqīʿ during the night.

According to the authentic narrations, he supplicated for those who had passed away and said:

"Peace be upon you, O inhabitants of these dwellings from among the believers and the Muslims. Indeed, if Allah wills, we shall join you. Glad tidings to you for what has come to you. Trials are approaching like portions of a dark night, each one following another, the latter being worse than the former."

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 974)

Not long afterwards, the Prophet ﷺ began suffering from a severe illness.

The first symptoms appeared after he had returned from attending the funeral of one of the Companions. He experienced an intense headache accompanied by a high fever.

Despite the increasing severity of the illness, the Prophet ﷺ continued to fulfil his responsibilities as long as he was physically able.

During the early days of his illness, he visited each of his wives according to his established practice.

As the fever worsened, it became increasingly difficult for him to move between their homes.

The Prophet ﷺ therefore sought their permission to remain in the apartment of ʿĀʾishah bint Abī Bakr رضي الله عنها, where he could receive care during his illness.

They unanimously agreed.

Supported by al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib and ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنهما, the Prophet ﷺ walked slowly to the apartment of ʿĀʾishah, his feet dragging upon the ground because of the weakness caused by the fever.

ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها later described the severity of his illness, saying that she had never seen anyone suffer from fever as intensely as the Messenger of Allah ﷺ.

Despite his condition, the Prophet ﷺ remained patient and constantly remembered Allah.

When the fever intensified, he requested that water be poured over him from several water skins so that he might regain enough strength to address the people.

The Companions carried out his request, and the Prophet ﷺ regained sufficient strength to leave the house and proceed to the mosque, where he would deliver one of his final public addresses to the Muslim community.

The Expedition of Usāmah ibn Zayd رضي الله عنه

Shortly before his final illness, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ appointed Usāmah ibn Zayd رضي الله عنه as commander of an expedition against the Byzantine forces. Usāmah was still a young man, yet the Prophet ﷺ entrusted him with command over experienced Companions, including senior members of the Muhājirūn and Anṣār.

The expedition was intended to continue the military preparations that had begun with the earlier confrontation at Muʾtah, where Usāmah's father, Zayd ibn Ḥārithah رضي الله عنه, had been killed.

The Prophet ﷺ instructed Usāmah to lead the army towards the region of al-Balqāʾ and the vicinity of al-Shām. The army assembled outside Madinah in preparation for departure.

Before the expedition could set out, however, the Prophet ﷺ became seriously ill. Usāmah and the army therefore remained outside Madinah while the Prophet's condition worsened.

During his final illness, the Prophet ﷺ continued to emphasise that Usāmah's expedition should proceed. After the Prophet's death, Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه confirmed Usāmah's appointment and ordered the army to continue with the mission as the Prophet ﷺ had instructed.

The Final Public Address and the Appointment of Abū Bakr to Lead the Prayer

After water had been poured over him to reduce the severity of his fever, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ gathered sufficient strength to leave the apartment of ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها and proceed to the mosque.

He addressed the people from the pulpit during one of his final public appearances.

Among the matters he emphasised was the importance of honouring the Anṣār, who had supported Islam from the earliest days in Madinah.

He said:

"I advise you to treat the Anṣār well, for they are my close supporters and trusted companions. They fulfilled their duty, and only their rights remain. Accept the good among them and overlook their shortcomings."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 3799); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 2510)

The Prophet ﷺ also warned against turning graves into places of worship, reminding the believers to preserve pure monotheism.

He said:

"May Allah curse the Jews and the Christians, for they took the graves of their prophets as places of worship."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 435); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 531)

ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها later explained that the Prophet ﷺ spoke these words to warn his followers against adopting such practices after his death.

As the illness progressed, the Prophet ﷺ became too weak to lead the congregational prayers.

He therefore instructed:

"Command Abū Bakr to lead the people in prayer."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 683); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 418)

ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها initially suggested that Abū Bakr was a man of tender heart who would be overcome with emotion while reciting the Qur'an before the congregation.

The Prophet ﷺ repeated his instruction:

"Command Abū Bakr to lead the people in prayer."

Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه thereafter led the Muslims in the daily prayers during the Prophet's ﷺ illness.

On one occasion, the Prophet ﷺ felt some improvement in his condition.

Supported by al-ʿAbbās and ʿAlī رضي الله عنهما, he came to the mosque while Abū Bakr was leading the prayer.

When Abū Bakr realised that the Prophet ﷺ had entered, he began to step back.

The Prophet ﷺ indicated that he should remain where he was.

He then sat beside Abū Bakr, and Abū Bakr continued leading the congregation while following the movements of the Prophet ﷺ. The congregation, in turn, followed Abū Bakr.

This was one of the final occasions on which the Muslims prayed behind the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ during his earthly life.   

The Final Morning

On the morning of Monday, 12 Rabīʿ al-Awwal, in the eleventh year after the Hijrah, the Muslims assembled in the mosque for the Fajr prayer.

Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه was leading the congregation in accordance with the Prophet's ﷺ earlier instruction.

While the believers were standing in prayer, the curtain of the apartment of ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها was lifted.

The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ looked towards the congregation.

Anas ibn Mālik رضي الله عنه narrated that the Prophet's ﷺ face appeared as radiant as the pages of the Qur'an.

Seeing the Muslims standing together in orderly rows behind Abū Bakr, the Prophet ﷺ smiled.

The Companions were overjoyed.

Some thought that the Prophet ﷺ had recovered sufficiently to return to the mosque.

Anas رضي الله عنه said that the Muslims were so delighted on seeing the Prophet ﷺ that they almost became distracted from their prayer.

Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه, believing that the Prophet ﷺ wished to come forward and lead the prayer, began stepping backwards.

The Prophet ﷺ indicated that he should remain where he was and complete the prayer.

He then lowered the curtain and returned to the room.

This was the final time the Prophet ﷺ was seen by the Muslim community gathered together in the mosque.

After the prayer had ended, the Companions returned to their homes and daily activities with renewed hope that his condition was improving.

Inside the apartment of ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها, however, the Prophet's ﷺ illness continued to intensify.

During his final moments, he rested against ʿĀʾishah.

She later narrated that her brother ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī Bakr رضي الله عنهما entered carrying a siwāk.

The Prophet ﷺ looked towards it.

Understanding that he wished to use it, ʿĀʾishah softened the siwāk and handed it to him.

He cleaned his teeth thoroughly with it, placing great importance upon cleanliness even during the final moments of his life.

Thereafter, the Prophet ﷺ repeatedly raised his gaze towards the heavens.

Among the last words heard from him were:

"O Allah, with the Highest Companion."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 4437); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 2444)

By these words, the Prophet ﷺ chose the companionship of Allah and the company of the prophets, the truthful, the martyrs and the righteous in the Hereafter over remaining in this worldly life.

Shortly afterwards, while resting against ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ peacefully returned to his Lord.

The Passing of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ

On Monday, 12 Rabīʿ al-Awwal, in the eleventh year after the Hijrah, while resting in the apartment of ʿĀʾishah bint Abī Bakr رضي الله عنها, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ returned to his Lord.

ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها narrated that the Prophet ﷺ rested with his head between her chest and neck during his final moments. She regarded it as one of Allah's great favours that the Prophet ﷺ passed away in her home, on her day, and while she was beside him.

When the Prophet ﷺ breathed his last, the news spread rapidly through Madinah.

The Companions were overwhelmed with grief.

Among those most deeply affected was ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه.

Unable to accept that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ had passed away, he stood before the people and declared that anyone who claimed Muhammad ﷺ had died was mistaken. He said that the Prophet ﷺ had only gone to his Lord as Mūsā (Moses) عليه السلام had done and would return.

Meanwhile, Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه was at his residence in al-Sunḥ on the outskirts of Madinah.

Upon hearing the news, he immediately rode to the Prophet's apartment.

He entered, uncovered the Prophet's blessed face, kissed his forehead and said:

"May my father and mother be sacrificed for you. You were beautiful in life, and you are beautiful in death. By Allah, Allah will never cause you to die twice."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 4452)

Abū Bakr then covered the Prophet ﷺ once more and went out to the mosque, where the people had gathered around ʿUmar.

He asked ʿUmar رضي الله عنه to sit down, but ʿUmar continued speaking.

Abū Bakr then addressed the people.

After praising Allah, he said:

"Whoever worshipped Muhammad, then Muhammad has died. But whoever worships Allah, then Allah is Ever-Living and never dies."

He then recited:

"Muhammad is no more than a messenger. Messengers have passed away before him. If he dies or is killed, will you turn back on your heels? Whoever turns back on his heels will not harm Allah in the least, and Allah will reward those who are grateful."

Qur'an 3:144

When the Companions heard this verse recited, they realised the reality of what had occurred.

ʿUmar رضي الله عنه later said that when he heard Abū Bakr recite the verse, his strength left him, his legs could no longer support him and he fell to the ground, knowing that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ had indeed passed away.

Thus ended the earthly life of the final Prophet and Messenger of Allah after twenty-three years of conveying the Qur'an, establishing the Muslim community and completing the religion entrusted to him.

The Burial of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ

Following the passing of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, the Companions devoted themselves to the affairs that immediately confronted the Muslim community.

After the pledge of allegiance had been given to Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه as the first Caliph, attention turned to the preparation of the Prophet's ﷺ body for burial.

The Prophet ﷺ was washed by members of his family.

Those who undertook the washing included ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, al-Faḍl ibn al-ʿAbbās, Qutham ibn al-ʿAbbās, Usāmah ibn Zayd and Shaqrān رضي الله عنهم.

According to the authentic reports, the Prophet ﷺ was washed while still clothed.

The Companions had initially differed as to whether his garments should be removed, but Allah caused them to fall into a light sleep. A voice instructed them to wash the Prophet ﷺ without removing his clothing, and they did so by pouring water over him and washing him through his garments.

After the washing had been completed, the Prophet ﷺ was shrouded in three plain white Yemeni cotton cloths without a shirt or turban.

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 1264); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 941)

The Muslims then performed the funeral prayer.

Unlike ordinary funeral prayers, the people entered the room in groups.

Each group prayed individually behind the body of the Prophet ﷺ without a single appointed imam. First came the men, followed by the women and then the children.

When the time came for the burial, the Companions discussed where the Prophet ﷺ should be buried.

Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه informed them that he had heard the Messenger of Allah ﷺ say:

"No prophet is buried except in the place where he dies."

Jāmiʿ al-Tirmidhī (Hadith 1018); Sunan Ibn Mājah (Hadith 1628)

The Companions therefore agreed that the Prophet ﷺ should be buried in the apartment of ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها, where he had passed away.

A grave of the laḥd type, with a side niche, was prepared by Abū Ṭalḥah al-Anṣārī رضي الله عنه.

The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was lowered into his grave by ʿAlī, al-Faḍl, Qutham and Shaqrān رضي الله عنهم.

The burial took place during the night between Tuesday and Wednesday.

With the burial of the Prophet ﷺ, the twenty-three-year mission through which Allah revealed the Qur'an, established Islam and united the Arabian Peninsula came to its earthly conclusion. The Qur'an remained preserved, the Sunnah had been demonstrated before the Companions, and the responsibility for preserving and conveying the message now rested with the Muslim community.

The Appointment of the First Caliph

The passing of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ confronted the Muslim community with its first major challenge after the completion of prophethood.

Although the Messenger of Allah ﷺ had completed his mission and conveyed the revelation in full, no successor had been appointed as a prophet, for Muhammad ﷺ was the Seal of the Prophets.

The immediate responsibility before the Companions was to ensure the continued leadership of the Muslim community.

While the Prophet ﷺ was being prepared for burial, leading members of the Anṣār gathered at the portico of Banū Sāʿidah (Saqīfat Banī Sāʿidah). They discussed the appointment of a leader from among themselves, recognising the urgent need for stable leadership following the Prophet's ﷺ passing.

When news of the meeting reached the Muhājirūn, Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb and Abū ʿUbaydah ibn al-Jarrāḥ رضي الله عنهم went to the gathering.

The Anṣār spoke of their longstanding support for Islam and their service to the Prophet ﷺ after the Hijrah.

Abū Bakr acknowledged their immense virtue and reminded those present of the unique position of Quraysh among the Arabs. He explained that the Arab tribes were most likely to unite under a leader from the tribe of the Prophet ﷺ while continuing to recognise the indispensable role and honour of the Anṣār.

Abū Bakr then proposed either ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb or Abū ʿUbaydah ibn al-Jarrāḥ رضي الله عنهما for leadership.

Both immediately declined.

ʿUmar took Abū Bakr by the hand and pledged allegiance to him, saying that no one was more deserving of leadership than the Companion whom the Prophet ﷺ had chosen to lead the believers in prayer during his final illness.

Those present gradually joined in giving their pledge of allegiance to Abū Bakr.

On the following day, a public pledge of allegiance was given in the Prophet's Mosque.

Abū Bakr addressed the Muslim community, saying:

"I have been appointed over you, though I am not the best among you. If I do well, then help me. If I act wrongly, then correct me. Truthfulness is a trust, and falsehood is treachery. The weak among you are strong in my sight until I secure their rights for them, if Allah wills. The strong among you are weak in my sight until I take from them the rights of others, if Allah wills. Obey me so long as I obey Allah and His Messenger. If I disobey Allah and His Messenger, then you owe me no obedience."

With this address, Abū Bakr established the principles upon which the first caliphate would be governed: accountability to Allah, justice between the people, and leadership exercised in accordance with the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

The Army of Usāmah ibn Zayd

One of the first major decisions faced by Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه concerned the army that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ had prepared shortly before his final illness.

The Prophet ﷺ had appointed Usāmah ibn Zayd رضي الله عنه, despite his young age, to command an expedition to the region of al-Balqāʾ in southern Syria, where Byzantine forces and their allies had previously confronted the Muslims at Muʾtah.

When the Prophet ﷺ became seriously ill, the army halted outside Madinah awaiting further developments.

Following the Prophet's ﷺ passing, many Companions advised Abū Bakr to postpone the expedition.

The situation throughout Arabia had become unstable. Several tribes had begun abandoning Islam, others refused to pay zakāh, and some individuals falsely claimed prophethood. Many believed that every available soldier would soon be needed to defend Madinah.

Abū Bakr, however, refused to cancel an expedition that had been ordered by the Messenger of Allah ﷺ.

He declared:

"By Him besides whom there is no deity, even if I knew that wild beasts would drag me away, I would still dispatch the army that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ ordered to depart."

The Companions also suggested that a more senior Companion should replace Usāmah as commander because of the challenges facing the Muslim community.

Abū Bakr firmly rejected the proposal.

He said to ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه:

"Has the Messenger of Allah ﷺ appointed him as commander, and you ask me to remove him?"

The matter was settled.

Abū Bakr personally accompanied the army as it prepared to depart from Madinah.

Although he was the Caliph of the Muslims, he walked beside Usāmah's horse while Usāmah remained mounted.

Usāmah requested that Abū Bakr also ride, but Abū Bakr replied:

"By Allah, I will not ride while you dismount. There is no harm if my feet become dusty for a short time in the path of Allah."

Before the army departed, Abū Bakr gave Usāmah and his soldiers a series of instructions governing their conduct during warfare.

He instructed them not to betray trusts, not to mutilate the dead, not to kill children, women or the elderly, not to destroy fruit-bearing trees unnecessarily, not to slaughter livestock except for food, and to leave monks and other religious devotees who had secluded themselves for worship.

The army then departed as originally commanded by the Prophet ﷺ.

The expedition fulfilled its objectives and returned safely to Madinah after demonstrating that the Muslim state remained united and capable despite the passing of the Prophet ﷺ.

The successful completion of the expedition strengthened confidence among the Muslims and signalled to the tribes of Arabia that the leadership established by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ would continue to uphold his commands and preserve the unity of the Muslim community.

The Wars of Apostasy (Ḥurūb al-Riddah)

Soon after the departure of the Army of Usāmah, Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه faced the greatest internal crisis the Muslim community had yet encountered.

Following the passing of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, many tribes across the Arabian Peninsula abandoned their allegiance to the Muslim state.

Their responses varied considerably.

Some openly renounced Islam and returned to their former beliefs.

Others remained Muslims but refused to pay zakāh, claiming that it had been an obligation owed only to the Prophet ﷺ during his lifetime.

At the same time, several individuals falsely claimed prophethood and gathered followers around themselves.

Among the most prominent were Musaylimah ibn Ḥabīb in al-Yamāmah, Ṭulayḥah ibn Khuwaylid al-Asadī in northern Arabia, Sajāḥ bint al-Ḥārith, who also claimed prophethood, and al-Aswad al-ʿAnsī in Yemen, although the latter had already been killed shortly before the Prophet's ﷺ passing.

These developments threatened both the religious unity and the political stability of the Muslim community.

Some Companions believed that those who still professed Islam but refused to pay zakāh should not be fought.

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه reminded Abū Bakr that the Prophet ﷺ had said:

"I have been commanded to fight the people until they testify that there is no deity worthy of worship except Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. If they do so, they protect from me their lives and property except by the right of Islam, and their reckoning is with Allah."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 25); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 22)

Abū Bakr, however, distinguished between professing Islam and refusing one of its established obligations.

He replied:

"By Allah, I will fight anyone who differentiates between prayer and zakāh. Zakāh is a right upon wealth. By Allah, if they withhold from me even a rope which they used to give to the Messenger of Allah ﷺ, I will fight them for withholding it."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 1400); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 20)

ʿUmar later said that once he heard Abū Bakr's reasoning, he realised that Allah had opened Abū Bakr's heart to the correct course of action.

Abū Bakr organised several military expeditions under experienced commanders, including Khālid ibn al-Walīd, ʿIkrimah ibn Abī Jahl, Shuraḥbīl ibn Ḥasanah and others رضي الله عنهم.

Their objective was to restore stability, suppress armed rebellion and re-establish the authority of the Muslim state throughout Arabia.

The campaigns that followed became collectively known as the Wars of Apostasy (Ḥurūb al-Riddah) and marked the first major military challenge faced by the Muslim community after the passing of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

The Compilation of the Qur'an

The Battle of Yamāmah resulted in the martyrdom of many Companions who had memorised the Qur'an in its entirety.

Concerned that the continued loss of those who had committed the Qur'an to memory might affect its preservation in future generations, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه approached Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه with a proposal.

He urged that the Qur'an should be collected into a single written compilation.

At first, Abū Bakr hesitated.

He said:

"How can I do something which the Messenger of Allah ﷺ did not do?"

ʿUmar replied:

"By Allah, it is good."

He continued discussing the matter until Allah opened Abū Bakr's heart to the proposal.

Abū Bakr later said:

"I came to see the same view that Allah had opened ʿUmar's heart to."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 4986)

Abū Bakr then entrusted the task to Zayd ibn Thābit رضي الله عنه, one of the Prophet's principal scribes of revelation.

Zayd initially expressed the same hesitation, saying:

"How can you do something which the Messenger of Allah ﷺ did not do?"

Abū Bakr repeated the reasoning that ʿUmar had presented, explaining that the objective was not to introduce anything new into the religion but to preserve the Qur'an exactly as it had been revealed.

Zayd accepted the responsibility.

He later remarked that if he had been instructed to move a mountain, he would not have found it more burdensome than compiling the Qur'an.

The work was carried out with the utmost care.

Zayd did not rely solely upon memorisation, despite being a memoriser of the Qur'an himself.

Each passage was verified through the written materials upon which revelation had originally been recorded during the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime, including parchment, leather, shoulder blades of animals, palm stalks and other writing materials.

In addition, every passage was confirmed through the testimony of Companions who had memorised it directly from the Prophet ﷺ.

Only after this careful process of verification was each verse included in the compilation.

When the work was completed, the compiled manuscript remained with Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه during his lifetime.

After his passing, it was entrusted to ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه.

Following ʿUmar's death, it came into the possession of his daughter Ḥafṣah bint ʿUmar رضي الله عنها, one of the wives of the Prophet ﷺ.

This compilation later served as the primary reference during the caliphate of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه when official copies of the Qur'an were prepared and distributed throughout the expanding Muslim world.

The compilation of the Qur'an during the caliphate of Abū Bakr stands as one of the most significant achievements in Islamic history, ensuring that the Qur'anic text revealed to the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was preserved in a single authenticated written collection alongside its continuous memorisation by the Muslim community.

The Conquest of Iraq and Syria

After restoring stability throughout the Arabian Peninsula, Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه turned his attention to the frontiers beyond Arabia.

To the northeast lay the Sasanian Persian Empire, while to the northwest lay the Byzantine Empire. Both had previously influenced Arabian affairs and had supported tribes that opposed the Muslims.

Abū Bakr organised military expeditions towards both frontiers.

He appointed Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه to lead the campaign into Iraq, then a province of the Sasanian Empire.

Through a series of engagements, the Muslim forces secured several important victories, including the battles of Chains (Dhāt al-Salāsil), the River (al-Madhar), al-Walajah and Ullays.

These victories established a Muslim presence in southern Iraq and opened the way for further advances during the caliphate of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه.

At the same time, Abū Bakr dispatched four separate armies towards Byzantine Syria.

He appointed ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ, Yazīd ibn Abī Sufyān, Shuraḥbīl ibn Ḥasanah and Abū ʿUbaydah ibn al-Jarrāḥ رضي الله عنهم as commanders, assigning each responsibility for a different region.

As Byzantine resistance strengthened, Abū Bakr instructed Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه to leave Iraq and reinforce the Muslim armies in Syria.

Khālid undertook a remarkable march across the desert, joining the Muslim forces and assuming battlefield command during the campaign.

The combined Muslim army subsequently achieved a significant victory at the Battle of Ajnādayn, one of the earliest major engagements between the Muslims and the Byzantine Empire.

Although the great conquests of Syria, Iraq and Persia would largely occur during the caliphate of ʿUmar رضي الله عنه, the foundations of those campaigns were laid by Abū Bakr.

His strategic planning, appointment of capable commanders and determination to carry the message of Islam beyond Arabia transformed the Muslim state from a regional power into one that would soon engage the two greatest empires of the age.

These campaigns also demonstrated that the Muslim community had recovered fully from the internal challenges that followed the passing of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. Having restored unity within Arabia, the caliphate was now firmly established and capable of defending its frontiers while expanding into neighbouring territories.

The Final Days of Abū Bakr and the Appointment of ʿUmar

After a caliphate of approximately two years, Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه fell ill.

Recognising that his illness was unlikely to improve, he became concerned that the Muslim community should remain united after his passing, just as it had been after the death of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

Abū Bakr consulted a number of the senior Companions regarding the appointment of a successor.

Among those with whom he consulted were ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf, ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, Saʿīd ibn Zayd, Usayd ibn Ḥuḍayr and other leading Companions رضي الله عنهم.

The overwhelming view was that ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه possessed the knowledge, justice and strength necessary to lead the Muslim community.

Some Companions expressed concern that ʿUmar's firmness might prove difficult for some people.

Abū Bakr replied that ʿUmar's firmness arose from seeing him adopt gentleness where appropriate, and that the responsibility of leadership would temper his severity.

After consultation, Abū Bakr instructed ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه to write his testament appointing ʿUmar as the next Caliph.

When the document had been completed, it was read publicly before the people.

Abū Bakr then addressed the Muslims, saying:

"Are you satisfied with the one whom I have appointed over you? By Allah, I have not appointed a relative, nor have I been negligent. I have appointed ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb over you, so listen to him and obey."

The people expressed their acceptance of Abū Bakr's decision.

During his illness, Abū Bakr remained occupied with the affairs of the Muslim community.

He instructed that any personal wealth belonging to the public treasury which had come into his possession during his caliphate should be returned.

He also directed that the camel, servant and cloth that had been used in his service as Caliph be restored to the Bayt al-Māl after his death.

His concern was that nothing belonging to the Muslims should remain with his family.

Before his passing, Abū Bakr requested that he be buried beside the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

His daughter, ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها, sought permission for this from the Muslim community, and it was granted.

Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه passed away on the night of Tuesday, 22 Jumādā al-Ākhirah, 13 AH, at the age of sixty-three.

He was washed according to his instructions, shrouded and led in the funeral prayer by ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه.

He was then buried in the apartment of ʿĀʾishah رضي الله عنها beside the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, becoming the first of the Rightly Guided Caliphs to join the Messenger of Allah in death.

His caliphate preserved the unity of the Muslim community during one of the most critical periods in its history, suppressed the Wars of Apostasy, initiated the compilation of the Qur'an and laid the foundations for the expansion of the Islamic state beyond the Arabian Peninsula.

Historical Significance

The caliphate of Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه lasted for just over two years, yet it proved to be one of the most decisive periods in Islamic history.

He assumed leadership at a time when the Muslim community had just experienced the passing of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. Within a short period, he restored confidence among the believers, preserved the unity of the Muslim state and established the principles upon which the office of the Caliph would continue.

His firm response to the Wars of Apostasy prevented the fragmentation of Arabia.

By confronting armed rebellion, false claimants to prophethood and the organised refusal to fulfil the obligations of the Islamic state, he restored stability throughout the peninsula and ensured that the Muslim community remained united after the end of prophethood.

One of his greatest achievements was the commissioning of the first complete written compilation of the Qur'an.

Acting upon the advice of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه and entrusting the work to Zayd ibn Thābit رضي الله عنه, he ensured that the Qur'an was preserved in a carefully verified written collection while its continuous memorisation among the Companions also continued.

Abū Bakr also honoured every major instruction left by the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

He dispatched the Army of Usāmah despite the uncertainty facing the Muslim community, demonstrating that the commands of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ remained binding after his passing.

His leadership further established the foundations for the expansion of the Islamic state into Iraq and Syria, campaigns that would continue during the caliphate of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه.

Throughout his caliphate, Abū Bakr was distinguished by humility, justice and complete devotion to the service of Allah and the Muslim community.

His inaugural address, his insistence upon accountability before Allah and his careful administration of public property reflected the principles that guided his leadership until his death.

Muslim historians have consistently regarded Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه as the greatest of the Rightly Guided Caliphs and the closest Companion of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

His leadership ensured the continuity of the Muslim community after the completion of prophethood and prepared the way for the remarkable developments that followed under the subsequent Rightly Guided Caliphs.