The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and Khaybar

The Prophet's Vision and the Decision to Perform ʿUmrah

In Dhū al-Qaʿdah 6 AH, approximately six years after the Hijrah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ saw a vision that he and his Companions were entering al-Masjid al-Ḥarām in Makkah peacefully, some with their heads shaved and others with their hair shortened, after completing the rites of ʿUmrah. The Prophet understood this vision to be true and informed his Companions that they would set out for Makkah to perform the lesser pilgrimage.

The Muslims did not prepare for war.

The Prophet ﷺ made it clear that the objective of the journey was worship, not military confrontation. The sacred month of Dhū al-Qaʿdah was one in which warfare was traditionally suspended throughout Arabia, and pilgrims from different tribes travelled safely to Makkah to perform their religious rites.

To demonstrate the peaceful nature of the expedition, the Muslims entered into the state of iḥrām before approaching Makkah and took with them sacrificial animals that were marked in the customary manner. These animals were intended for sacrifice upon the completion of the pilgrimage and served as a visible indication that the travellers had come as pilgrims rather than soldiers.

Approximately one thousand four hundred Companions accompanied the Prophet ﷺ on the journey. Although many carried their personal swords, these were the ordinary travelling weapons customarily permitted to pilgrims and remained sheathed. No siege equipment or preparations for battle were made.

The caravan departed Madinah peacefully, with the Companions repeatedly reciting the talbiyah as they travelled towards Makkah:

"Labbayka Allāhumma labbayk. Labbayka lā sharīka laka labbayk. Inna al-ḥamda wan-niʿmata laka wal-mulk. Lā sharīka lak."

The journey itself reflected the confidence of the Muslim community. Only a few years earlier, the believers had been forced to flee Makkah under persecution. They were now returning openly, not as an invading army but as pilgrims seeking to worship Allah at the Kaʿbah, the sanctuary built by Ibrāhīm (Abraham) (Ibrāhīm) عليه السلام and Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) (Ismāʿīl) عليه السلام.

As the Muslims advanced southwards, news of their approach quickly reached Quraysh.

The leaders of Makkah immediately began discussing how they should respond. Although they understood that the Muslims had come in the sacred months and were dressed as pilgrims, they feared that allowing Muhammad ﷺ and his followers to enter the city would be seen by the tribes of Arabia as a political victory for the Muslims.

Determined to prevent their entry, Quraysh assembled mounted forces under the command of Khālid ibn al-Walīd—who had not yet embraced Islam—and dispatched them to block the approaches to Makkah.

While still on the journey, the Prophet ﷺ received intelligence that Quraysh intended to stop the Muslims before they reached the Sacred Mosque.

Rather than seeking confrontation, he altered the route of the caravan, leading the Muslims away from the main road and along more difficult paths to avoid the Quraysh cavalry. The expedition that had begun as a peaceful pilgrimage was now entering a critical stage, as both sides sought to avoid a battle within the sacred precincts while remaining firm in their respective objectives.

The Muslims Reach Ḥudaybiyyah

Avoiding the Quraysh cavalry, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ led the Muslims along a less-travelled route until they reached the area of Ḥudaybiyyah, situated on the western edge of the sacred boundary surrounding Makkah.

As the caravan approached the plain, the Prophet's camel, al-Qaṣwāʾ, suddenly knelt and refused to continue despite repeated attempts to urge her forward.

Some of the Companions remarked that the camel had become stubborn.

The Prophet ﷺ corrected them, saying that al-Qaṣwāʾ had not become stubborn, for such behaviour was not her nature. Rather, he explained that she had been restrained by the same Allah who had restrained the elephant during the expedition of Abraha. He understood that this was Allah's command and that the Muslims were not to proceed further towards Makkah at that time.

The Prophet ﷺ then declared that he would accept any proposal from Quraysh that honoured the sacred limits established by Allah and promoted peace.

The Muslims established their camp at Ḥudaybiyyah. The area was dry, and the well there contained very little water. Before long, the Companions informed the Prophet ﷺ that the water supply was nearly exhausted.

The Prophet ﷺ approached the well and, according to the authentic narrations, either rinsed his mouth into it or placed an arrow in the well. Soon afterwards, water began to rise until it became sufficient for the entire Muslim camp and their animals. The Companions drew water freely, and the immediate concern over supplies came to an end.

Meanwhile, Quraysh closely monitored the movements of the Muslims. They remained determined to prevent them from entering Makkah, yet they also wished to avoid fighting within the sacred months, as this would damage their reputation among the Arab tribes who regarded themselves as custodians of the Kaʿbah.

Instead of immediate hostilities, both sides began exchanging messengers.

One of the first to arrive was Budayl ibn Warqāʾ al-Khuzāʿī, who came on behalf of Khuzāʿah, a tribe that maintained friendly relations with both the Muslims and Quraysh. He asked the Prophet ﷺ about the purpose of the expedition.

The Prophet ﷺ replied that he had not come to fight but had come solely to perform ʿUmrah. He explained that the Muslims wished only to visit the Sacred House, offer their sacrifices and then return to Madinah without seeking conflict.

Budayl carried this message back to Quraysh and informed them that Muhammad ﷺ had not come as an invading force.

Many of the Quraysh leaders, however, remained unconvinced. They insisted that allowing the Muslims to enter Makkah, even peacefully, would be interpreted throughout Arabia as a sign that Quraysh had yielded to their rivals.

As discussions continued, Quraysh sent additional representatives to negotiate with the Prophet ﷺ. Each delegation returned with the same message: the Muslims sought only to perform the pilgrimage and had no intention of fighting.

Among those sent was al-Ḥulays ibn ʿAlqamah, the leader of the Aḥābish, allies of Quraysh who held the sacred rites of pilgrimage in high regard. Recognising his background, the Prophet ﷺ instructed that the sacrificial animals be brought into view before al-Ḥulays reached the camp.

When al-Ḥulays saw the marked sacrificial animals and the pilgrims in the state of iḥrām, he became convinced that the Muslims had indeed come only for worship. Without even completing lengthy discussions, he returned to Quraysh and strongly criticised their refusal to allow the pilgrims to reach the Sacred House.

Despite the growing evidence that the Muslims had peaceful intentions, the leaders of Quraysh remained unwilling to grant them entry.

The negotiations therefore continued, bringing both sides closer to one of the most important diplomatic agreements in the history of early Islam.

The Mission of ʿUthmān and the Pledge beneath the Tree

As negotiations continued at Ḥudaybiyyah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ remained committed to resolving the situation peacefully. Since Quraysh continued refusing the Muslims permission to enter Makkah, he decided to send an envoy to explain their intentions directly to the leaders of the city.

The Prophet ﷺ first considered sending ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه. ʿUmar, however, explained that he had few close relatives in Makkah who could guarantee his protection and feared that Quraysh might attack him before he could deliver the Prophet's message. He therefore suggested that ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه be sent instead, as he belonged to the respected Umayyah clan and enjoyed the protection of influential members of Quraysh.

The Prophet ﷺ accepted the suggestion and entrusted ʿUthmān with the mission.

Upon entering Makkah, ʿUthmān informed Quraysh that the Muslims had not come to wage war but only to perform ʿUmrah before returning to Madinah. The Quraysh leaders listened to his message but remained unwilling to allow the Muslims to enter the city that year.

They offered ʿUthmān permission to perform ṭawāf around the Kaʿbah himself if he wished.

ʿUthmān declined.

He replied that he would not circumambulate the Kaʿbah while the Messenger of Allah ﷺ was prevented from doing so.

His refusal reflected both his loyalty to the Prophet ﷺ and the collective purpose of the expedition. The Muslims had come as one community, and he would not accept a privilege denied to the Messenger of Allah ﷺ and the other believers.

The discussions in Makkah lasted longer than expected.

As time passed without news of ʿUthmān, reports began circulating among the Muslims at Ḥudaybiyyah that he had been killed by Quraysh.

Although the report proved to be false, it had an immediate and profound effect upon the Muslim camp.

Under the customs of Arabia, the killing of an envoy was regarded as a grave violation of accepted practice. If ʿUthmān had indeed been murdered while carrying a message of peace, the Muslims understood that negotiations had effectively ended.

The Prophet ﷺ therefore gathered the Companions beneath an acacia tree and called upon them to pledge that they would stand firm and not flee if fighting became unavoidable.

One after another, the Companions came forward and placed their hands in the hand of the Prophet ﷺ, pledging their loyalty and their willingness to fight if necessary. The pledge demonstrated their complete commitment to the Prophet ﷺ despite the overwhelming strength of Quraysh and the uncertainty surrounding the situation.

When all those present had pledged, the Prophet ﷺ placed one of his own hands upon the other and said that it represented the hand of ʿUthmān, thereby including him among those who had given the pledge despite his absence in Makkah.

This historic pledge became known as Bayʿat al-Riḍwān (the Pledge of Divine Pleasure), because Allah expressed His pleasure with those who participated.

The Qur'an states:

"Certainly was Allah pleased with the believers when they pledged allegiance to you under the tree. He knew what was in their hearts, so He sent down tranquillity upon them and rewarded them with a near victory."

Qur'an 48:18

Shortly afterwards, the reports concerning ʿUthmān proved to be false.

He returned safely from Makkah, having successfully conveyed the Prophet's message. Although Quraysh still refused to admit the Muslims into the city, they now recognised the determination and unity displayed by the believers at Ḥudaybiyyah.

The pledge also marked a turning point in the negotiations. Realising that the Muslims remained disciplined and prepared to stand together if conflict became unavoidable, Quraysh decided to send one of its senior leaders with authority to negotiate a formal peace agreement. That envoy was Suhayl ibn ʿAmr, whose arrival signalled that the long period of negotiation was drawing to its conclusion.

The Negotiation of the Treaty

After the return of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه and the Pledge of al-Riḍwān, the leaders of Quraysh recognised that the situation could no longer remain unresolved. They therefore appointed Suhayl ibn ʿAmr, one of their most respected negotiators, to conclude a formal agreement with the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

When the Prophet ﷺ saw Suhayl approaching the Muslim camp, he remarked to his Companions that Quraysh intended to reach a settlement. The arrival of a negotiator with full authority indicated that the leaders of Makkah had chosen diplomacy over armed confrontation.

Suhayl and the Prophet ﷺ began discussing the terms upon which peace could be established.

After lengthy negotiations, both sides agreed that hostilities between the Muslims and Quraysh would cease for a period of ten years. During this time, neither side would attack the other, allowing travellers and tribes throughout Arabia to move more safely and giving both communities an opportunity to conduct their affairs without the constant threat of war.

It was further agreed that any Arab tribe would be free to enter into an alliance with either the Muslims or Quraysh without interference from the other party. This provision effectively recognised the Muslims as an independent political authority, able to conclude treaties with other tribes on equal terms with Quraysh.

The agreement also stipulated that the Muslims would not enter Makkah that year. Instead, they would return to Madinah and be permitted to perform ʿUmrah the following year. When they returned, they would remain in Makkah for three days only, carrying no weapons except the sheathed swords customarily borne by travellers.

One of the most debated clauses concerned individuals who left one side for the other. According to the agreement, anyone from Quraysh who came to Muhammad ﷺ without the permission of his guardian would be returned to Makkah. Conversely, anyone who left the Muslims to join Quraysh would not be returned.

Many of the Companions found this condition particularly difficult to accept, believing it placed the Muslims at a disadvantage. The Prophet ﷺ nevertheless accepted the clause as part of the wider agreement.

Once the terms had been settled, the Prophet ﷺ instructed ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه to write the treaty.

The Prophet ﷺ began by dictating:

"In the name of Allah, the Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate."

Suhayl objected.

He stated that Quraysh did not recognise this wording and requested that the document instead begin with the customary Arabian formula:

"In Your Name, O Allah."

Desiring to preserve the agreement rather than argue over wording, the Prophet ﷺ accepted the request and instructed ʿAlī to write the phrase preferred by Quraysh.

The Prophet ﷺ then dictated:

"This is what Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, has agreed with Suhayl ibn ʿAmr."

Suhayl again objected.

He declared that if Quraysh had accepted Muhammad as the Messenger of Allah, there would have been no dispute between them. He insisted that the document should instead read:

"Muhammad son of ʿAbdullāh."

ʿAlī رضي الله عنه hesitated.

Out of love and respect for the Prophet ﷺ, he was unwilling to erase the words "Messenger of Allah."

The Prophet ﷺ asked him to indicate where the words appeared in the document. Taking the document himself, the Prophet ﷺ erased the words and instructed that "Muhammad son of ʿAbdullāh" be written in their place.

Although this concession was difficult for many of the Companions to witness, the Prophet ﷺ understood that the wording of the treaty did not alter the reality of his prophethood. His objective remained the establishment of peace, and he was prepared to accept concessions in wording if they secured that greater purpose.

With the document completed, both parties formally accepted its terms.

For many of the Muslims present, however, the treaty appeared deeply unfavourable. Having travelled hundreds of kilometres in the sacred months with the intention of performing ʿUmrah, they now found themselves required to return to Madinah without entering Makkah. Some of the agreed conditions seemed difficult to reconcile with the growing strength of the Muslim community.

Their greatest test of the day, however, was still to come. Before the treaty had even been fully concluded, an unexpected incident occurred that brought one of its most painful clauses into immediate effect.

Abū Jandal and the Test of the Treaty

Before the ink on the treaty had dried, an incident occurred that tested the resolve of the Muslims and demonstrated the Prophet Muhammad's ﷺ unwavering commitment to honouring agreements.

As the negotiations were concluding, a man suddenly appeared making his way towards the Muslim camp. He was Abū Jandal ibn Suhayl رضي الله عنه, the son of Suhayl ibn ʿAmr, the very man who had negotiated the treaty on behalf of Quraysh.

Abū Jandal had embraced Islam in Makkah but had been imprisoned and subjected to severe persecution because of his faith. Having learned that the Prophet ﷺ was camped at Ḥudaybiyyah, he escaped from his confinement, still bearing the marks of his imprisonment, and struggled across the plain until he reached the Muslims.

The Companions were overjoyed to see him.

Suhayl, however, immediately stood and declared that Abū Jandal was the first person to whom the newly agreed treaty must apply. Since his son belonged to Quraysh and had come to Muhammad ﷺ without permission, he demanded that he be returned to Makkah.

The Prophet ﷺ explained that Abū Jandal had arrived before the treaty had been formally concluded and requested that an exception be made.

Suhayl refused.

He insisted that if his request were denied, there would be no treaty.

Determined to secure the peace agreement, the Prophet ﷺ continued to appeal for leniency, but Suhayl remained firm. Other Muslims present also attempted to persuade him to show mercy to his own son, yet he would not change his position.

The Prophet ﷺ therefore honoured the agreement.

Abū Jandal pleaded with the Muslims not to return him to those who had tortured him because of his religion. Seeing his condition, the Companions were deeply distressed. Many found it extremely difficult to witness a fellow Muslim being handed back to those from whom he had just escaped.

Among those most affected was ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه.

Unable to conceal his anguish, ʿUmar approached the Prophet ﷺ and asked:

"Are you not truly the Messenger of Allah?"

The Prophet ﷺ replied:

"Indeed I am."

ʿUmar then asked:

"Are we not upon the truth and our enemies upon falsehood?"

The Prophet ﷺ replied:

"Indeed."

ʿUmar continued:

"Then why should we accept humiliation in our religion?"

The Prophet ﷺ answered:

"I am the Messenger of Allah, and I do not disobey Him. He will never forsake me."

Still troubled, ʿUmar later went to Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه and repeated the same questions.

Abū Bakr gave essentially the same answer as the Prophet ﷺ, reminding him to remain steadfast and to hold firmly to the Prophet ﷺ, for Allah would fulfil His promise.

Meanwhile, the Prophet ﷺ sought to comfort Abū Jandal.

He told him to remain patient and assured him that Allah would provide a way out for him and for the other oppressed Muslims in Makkah. Although the immediate circumstances were painful, the Prophet ﷺ emphasised that the believers must honour the agreement they had made.

Abū Jandal was then returned to Quraysh in accordance with the treaty.

The incident left the Muslim camp in deep sorrow. Many Companions struggled to understand why they had accepted terms that appeared to disadvantage the believers, particularly when they had come only to perform ʿUmrah and possessed the strength to defend themselves if necessary.

The wisdom of the treaty, however, would soon become evident. What many Companions initially regarded as a painful concession would, within a short time, prove to be one of the greatest political and strategic victories achieved during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

The Return to Madinah and the Revelation of Victory

With the treaty concluded, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ informed the Companions that they would not be entering Makkah that year. Instead, they were to fulfil the rites associated with ending the state of iḥrām at Ḥudaybiyyah before returning to Madinah.

The Prophet ﷺ instructed the Companions to slaughter their sacrificial animals and shave or shorten their hair.

The Companions, however, remained seated.

Their hesitation did not arise from disobedience but from the profound disappointment they felt. Having travelled from Madinah in the sacred months with the expectation of performing ʿUmrah, they found it difficult to accept that they would turn back without entering the Sacred Mosque. Many still hoped that circumstances might change.

The Prophet ﷺ repeated the instruction.

Again, no one moved.

Grieved by the situation, the Prophet ﷺ entered the tent of his wife Umm Salamah رضي الله عنها and informed her of what had occurred.

Umm Salamah offered wise counsel. She advised the Prophet ﷺ not to speak further to the Companions but instead to go out, slaughter his own sacrificial animal and have his head shaved without saying anything. She believed that once the Companions saw him carrying out the rites himself, they would immediately follow.

The Prophet ﷺ accepted her advice.

He left the tent, sacrificed his animal and called for his barber, who shaved his head.

When the Companions witnessed the Prophet ﷺ performing the rites, they realised that the decision was final. They immediately rose, slaughtered their own sacrificial animals and shaved or shortened their hair. The early narrations describe the depth of their emotion, relating that they carried out the rites with great sorrow because of the disappointment they felt.

After the rites had been completed, the Muslims broke camp and began the journey back to Madinah.

During the return journey, revelation descended upon the Prophet ﷺ.

Allah revealed the opening verses of Sūrah al-Fatḥ:

"Indeed, We have granted you a clear victory."

Qur'an 48:1

The revelation astonished many of the Companions.

From their perspective, they had been prevented from entering Makkah, had accepted conditions that appeared unfavourable and had returned home without completing the pilgrimage they had intended to perform. Yet Allah described the outcome as "a clear victory."

The Prophet ﷺ informed the Companions that a sūrah had been revealed to him which was dearer to him than all that the sun rises upon.

Gradually, the believers came to understand that victory is not measured solely by success on the battlefield. The treaty had secured ten years of peace with Quraysh, enabling the Muslims to devote their attention to calling people to Islam rather than preparing continually for war. It also represented the first formal agreement in which Quraysh dealt with the Muslims as an equal political authority.

Not long after the Muslims had returned to Madinah, another event demonstrated the wisdom of the treaty.

A woman named Umm Kulthūm bint ʿUqbah رضي الله عنها escaped from Makkah and migrated to Madinah as a believer. Members of her family came demanding that she be returned under the terms of the treaty.

Allah then revealed verses making clear that believing women who emigrated from Makkah were not to be returned to the disbelievers after their faith had been established.

"O you who believe! When believing women come to you as emigrants, examine them... If you know them to be believers, then do not return them to the disbelievers. They are not lawful for them, nor are they lawful for them."

Qur'an 60:10

This clarification demonstrated that the clause concerning the return of individuals did not apply to believing women and that the treaty was to be implemented in accordance with the guidance subsequently revealed by Allah.

As the months passed, the benefits of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah became increasingly apparent. Peace allowed people from across Arabia to meet the Muslims freely, hear the Qur'an without the immediate pressures of war and consider Islam in a new light. Events soon unfolded that confirmed why Allah had described the treaty not as a compromise, but as a clear victory.

Legacy and Historical Significance

In the months and years that followed, the wisdom of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah became increasingly evident. Although many of the Companions had initially regarded its terms as difficult to accept, subsequent events demonstrated that the agreement marked one of the most significant turning points in the history of Islam.

For the first time since the Hijrah, the Muslims and Quraysh entered into a formal peace agreement as two recognised political powers. Until then, Quraysh had largely treated the Muslims as rebels or fugitives from Makkah. By negotiating directly with the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and concluding a binding treaty, Quraysh effectively acknowledged the Islamic state in Madinah as a legitimate political entity.

The cessation of hostilities transformed the situation throughout Arabia. Tribes that had previously hesitated to approach the Muslims because of the ongoing conflict with Quraysh were now able to visit Madinah without fear of becoming involved in war. Delegations travelled more freely, conversations took place without the pressure of imminent fighting, and many people encountered the message of Islam for the first time under peaceful circumstances.

The effect upon the spread of Islam was remarkable.

The number of people who embraced Islam during the period following the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah exceeded those who had accepted Islam during many earlier years of continual conflict. Among the most notable converts during this period were Khālid ibn al-Walīd رضي الله عنه, whose military ability had previously been employed against the Muslims, and ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ رضي الله عنه, one of the most capable diplomats and statesmen of Quraysh. Their acceptance of Islam would later play a significant role in the expansion of the Muslim community.

The treaty also enabled the Prophet ﷺ to direct attention beyond the immediate conflict with Quraysh. With the southern frontier temporarily secure, he was able to strengthen relations with neighbouring tribes and prepare for new diplomatic initiatives that would extend far beyond the Arabian Peninsula.

The events surrounding Abū Jandal and, later, Abū Baṣīr رضي الله عنه also demonstrated that the treaty's seemingly unfavourable clauses would not ultimately operate to the disadvantage of the Muslims. As circumstances developed, the pressure created by these cases led Quraysh themselves to request changes to one of the treaty's most controversial provisions.

The Qur'an's description of the treaty as "a clear victory" therefore proved entirely accurate. What had appeared to many as a concession became the foundation for unprecedented political stability, rapid growth in the Muslim community and the peaceful spread of Islam throughout Arabia.

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah also illustrated an enduring principle of the Prophet's ﷺ leadership. He demonstrated that lasting success is not always achieved through military victory. Patience, diplomacy, honouring agreements and accepting temporary disadvantages for a greater long-term benefit can achieve results that warfare alone cannot.

Less than two years after the treaty was signed, the agreement would be violated by one of Quraysh's allies. That breach would fundamentally alter relations between Makkah and Madinah and lead directly to one of the most decisive events in the Prophet's ﷺ life.

The next major section in the Sīrah is The Expedition of Khaybar, followed by The Letters to the Kings and Rulers, before returning to the events that culminated in the Conquest of Makkah. The Expedition of Khaybar follows immediately in the chronological sequence and should therefore be the next section.            

Background and the March to Khaybar

In Muḥarram 7 AH, shortly after the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ turned his attention towards Khaybar, a fertile oasis situated approximately 150 kilometres north of Madinah. Khaybar was renowned for its extensive date plantations, agricultural wealth and a series of heavily fortified strongholds that made it one of the most secure settlements in northern Arabia.

Following their expulsion from Madinah, many of the leaders of Banū Naḍīr had settled at Khaybar. Among them were several of the same individuals who had played a leading role in organising the coalition that culminated in the Battle of the Trench. From Khaybar, they continued to cultivate alliances with tribes hostile to the Muslims and remained an important source of political and military opposition to Madinah.

Although the Confederates had been defeated, Khaybar continued to represent a significant strategic concern. Its leaders possessed considerable wealth, maintained fortified positions and retained influence among several tribes of northern Arabia. The Prophet ﷺ therefore resolved to address the threat before it could develop into another large-scale coalition against the Muslims.

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah made this possible. With Quraysh committed to a truce, the Muslims no longer faced the immediate danger of simultaneous attacks from Makkah while undertaking operations elsewhere. The agreement therefore allowed the Prophet ﷺ to deal with threats that had previously remained beyond the immediate reach of Madinah.

The Prophet ﷺ assembled an army of approximately one thousand four hundred men, the majority of whom had participated in the Pledge of al-Riḍwān at Ḥudaybiyyah. Unlike earlier campaigns, no large force from Quraysh threatened Madinah during their absence, reflecting the new political reality established by the treaty.

Before departing, the Prophet ﷺ appointed a deputy to oversee the affairs of Madinah and then led the army northwards.

The route chosen avoided drawing unnecessary attention to the expedition. As the Muslims advanced, the Prophet ﷺ sought to prevent tribes allied with Khaybar from joining its defence before the army reached the oasis.

During the journey, the Prophet ﷺ passed near the territory of Ghatafān. Reports indicated that elements of the tribe had considered marching to assist the people of Khaybar. However, according to the early Sīrah sources, concerns for the safety of their own families and property caused them to abandon the idea and return home before reaching the battlefield.

As the Muslim army approached Khaybar, the Prophet ﷺ instructed the Companions to advance quietly during the final stages of the march. He intended to reach the oasis before its inhabitants had fully prepared for a prolonged defence.

The Muslims arrived near Khaybar in the early morning while many of its inhabitants were leaving their homes carrying farming tools to begin work in the fields.

When they saw the approaching Muslim army, they immediately recognised the situation and hurried back towards their fortresses, calling out that Muhammad ﷺ and his army had arrived.

Seeing them withdraw, the Prophet ﷺ declared:

"Allāhu Akbar! Khaybar is destroyed. When we descend upon the courtyard of a people who have been warned, evil is the morning of those who were warned."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 4197)

The people of Khaybar abandoned work in the fields and retreated into their fortified strongholds. The expedition that had begun as a rapid advance now became a campaign against one of the strongest defensive positions in Arabia.

Rather than one decisive battle, the conquest of Khaybar would unfold through a series of sieges against its individual fortresses. Each stronghold presented its own challenges, and the campaign would reveal both the military organisation of the Muslims and the determination of the defenders. The first engagements would soon begin against the outer fortresses guarding the oasis.

The First Fortresses and the Opening Engagements

Khaybar was not defended by a single fortress but by a network of heavily fortified strongholds spread across the oasis. These fortresses were grouped into several defensive sectors, each capable of resisting attack independently. If one fortress fell, its defenders could withdraw to another, making the conquest of Khaybar far more complex than a single battle.

Upon arriving at the oasis, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ established the Muslim camp at a location beyond the effective range of the defenders' arrows while ensuring that the route between the various fortresses could be observed. The Muslim army then began operations against the outer defensive positions.

The first objective was the group of fortresses known collectively as Naʿim. These strongholds guarded the northern approaches to Khaybar and represented the first line of defence protecting the oasis.

The defenders fought from behind thick walls and elevated positions, using arrows and other missiles to repel the advancing Muslims. Unlike many earlier expeditions, where battles were decided in open combat, Khaybar required siege warfare. The Muslims therefore advanced cautiously, seeking to isolate each fortress rather than launching costly assaults against all of them at once.

The fighting around the first fortresses was intense. The defenders resisted vigorously, relying upon the strength of their fortifications and their familiarity with the terrain. The Muslims, meanwhile, gradually tightened the siege, preventing movement between the strongholds wherever possible.

During these opening engagements, Maḥmūd ibn Maslamah رضي الله عنه was martyred after a millstone was thrown from one of the fortresses, striking him during the fighting. His death reminded the Muslims that, although the Confederates had been defeated, the campaign at Khaybar would not be won without sacrifice.

The siege continued for several days.

As pressure mounted, the Muslims succeeded in capturing the Fortress of Naʿim. Its fall deprived the defenders of one of their principal defensive positions and forced them to withdraw further into the inner fortresses of the oasis.

The Muslims then advanced against the neighbouring Fortress of al-Ṣaʿb ibn Muʿādh, regarded as one of the strongest positions in that sector. Once again, the defenders resisted fiercely, prolonging the siege.

During this stage of the campaign, provisions within the Muslim camp became scarce. The expedition had lasted longer than many had anticipated, and food supplies were limited. The Companions endured hardship while maintaining the siege, demonstrating the same patience that had characterised earlier campaigns.

Despite these difficulties, the Muslims eventually succeeded in capturing al-Ṣaʿb ibn Muʿādh. The fortress contained significant stores of grain and provisions, which relieved the shortages experienced by the Muslim army and enabled the campaign to continue.

With the northern defensive sector now largely under Muslim control, the defenders of Khaybar retreated into the remaining fortified complexes deeper within the oasis. The strongest fortresses still lay ahead, and the most difficult fighting of the expedition was yet to come.

Among those remaining was the formidable Fortress of al-Qamūṣ, where several of Khaybar's leading figures had taken refuge. It was during the operations against these inner fortresses that one of the most famous episodes of the campaign occurred, involving the banner of the Muslim army and the leadership of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه.

The Banner Given to ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib

As the campaign continued, the Muslims advanced towards the inner fortresses of Khaybar, which were stronger and better defended than those already captured. The defenders had withdrawn behind massive walls, and each fortress required a separate siege before the Muslims could proceed further into the oasis.

During one stage of the fighting, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ entrusted the banner of the Muslim army to Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه. He advanced against one of the principal fortresses, but despite determined efforts, the stronghold was not taken that day, and the Muslims returned to camp.

On the following day, the Prophet ﷺ entrusted the banner to ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه. Once again, the Muslims fought with determination, but the fortress remained unconquered, and the siege continued.

That evening, the Prophet ﷺ addressed the Companions and said:

"Tomorrow I will give the banner to a man who loves Allah and His Messenger, and Allah and His Messenger love him. Allah will grant victory through his hands."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 4210); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 2406)

The Companions later recalled that, after hearing these words, each hoped that he might be the one chosen to receive the banner.

The following morning, the Prophet ﷺ asked for ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه.

It was explained that ʿAlī was suffering from severe pain in his eyes and was unable to participate in the fighting. The Prophet ﷺ nevertheless instructed that he be brought before him.

When ʿAlī arrived, the Prophet ﷺ applied his blessed saliva to ʿAlī's eyes and supplicated to Allah for his recovery.

According to the authentic narrations, ʿAlī was immediately cured, and the pain disappeared as though he had never suffered from it.

The Prophet ﷺ then handed him the banner.

Before departing, ʿAlī asked:

"Should I fight them until they become like us?"

The Prophet ﷺ replied:

"Proceed calmly until you reach their courtyard. Then invite them to Islam and inform them of what Allah has made obligatory upon them. By Allah, if Allah guides even one person through you, it is better for you than red camels."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 4210); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (Hadith 2406)

Following this instruction, ʿAlī advanced with the Muslim force towards the fortress.

The defenders emerged to meet the Muslims, and among them was Marḥab, one of Khaybar's most renowned warriors. He was celebrated for his skill in battle and was regarded by his people as one of their foremost champions.

According to the early Sīrah and Hadith sources, Marḥab came forward wearing armour and challenging the Muslims to single combat. ʿAlī accepted the challenge.

The two men met in combat before the opposing armies.

After a fierce exchange, ʿAlī struck Marḥab down.

The death of one of Khaybar's leading champions had a profound effect upon the defenders. Their morale was shaken, while the confidence of the Muslim army was strengthened.

The fighting nevertheless continued.

Although Marḥab had been defeated, the fortress itself remained heavily defended. The Muslims pressed their attack, gradually forcing the defenders back towards their strongholds.

After sustained fighting, the fortress was captured, marking one of the decisive turning points of the campaign. With the fall of this major stronghold, the remaining fortresses of Khaybar became increasingly isolated, and organised resistance within the oasis began to weaken. The conquest of Khaybar was now entering its final stages.

The Fall of the Remaining Fortresses

The capture of the major inner fortress marked a decisive shift in the campaign. Although pockets of resistance remained, the defenders of Khaybar had lost one of their strongest positions and several of their most capable leaders. The remaining fortresses were now increasingly isolated from one another, making coordinated resistance difficult.

Rather than launching a simultaneous assault on every stronghold, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ continued the methodical strategy that had characterised the expedition from the beginning. Each fortress was surrounded, its defenders were prevented from receiving support from neighbouring positions, and the Muslims concentrated their efforts upon one objective at a time.

As news spread of the fall of the earlier fortresses, the confidence of the defenders steadily declined. Some continued to resist, while others withdrew deeper into the remaining fortified settlements, hoping that their walls and provisions would enable them to withstand a prolonged siege.

Among the last and most formidable positions was the fortress of al-Waṭīḥ, together with the neighbouring fortress of al-Sulālim. These strongholds became the final refuge of many of Khaybar's remaining defenders.

The siege of these fortresses continued for several days.

Unlike the earlier engagements, where some positions had fallen after determined assaults, the final defenders relied upon their fortifications and sought to prolong the conflict for as long as possible. The Muslims maintained the siege, gradually exhausting the defenders' ability to continue resistance.

Eventually, recognising that no relief would arrive and that further resistance would only increase their losses, the leaders of the remaining fortresses requested negotiations with the Prophet ﷺ.

The Prophet ﷺ accepted their request.

The people of Khaybar agreed to surrender the oasis peacefully. Under the terms of the agreement, the fighting came to an end, and the remaining fortresses were handed over to the Muslims.

During the negotiations, the inhabitants explained that they possessed long experience in cultivating the fertile lands and date plantations of Khaybar. They requested permission to remain and continue working the agricultural land rather than abandoning the oasis altogether.

After consultation, the Prophet ﷺ agreed.

The agreement allowed the people of Khaybar to remain as cultivators of the land on the condition that they would work the orchards and fields and give an agreed share of the annual produce to the Islamic state. Ownership and political authority over the oasis, however, now rested with the Muslims.

This arrangement differed from the outcomes of several earlier campaigns. Instead of removing the agricultural population, the existing expertise of the cultivators was retained, ensuring that the productive lands of Khaybar continued to provide food and economic benefit while remaining under Muslim administration.

Following the surrender, the property of Khaybar was administered according to the Islamic regulations governing the outcome of the campaign. The lands and agricultural revenues were distributed in accordance with the Prophet's ﷺ judgement, while the agreement with the cultivators remained in force for the remainder of his lifetime.

With the surrender of the final fortresses, the Expedition of Khaybar came to an end. One of the strongest military and political centres in northern Arabia had passed under Muslim control, removing a long-standing source of opposition to Madinah and greatly strengthening the security and economic stability of the Islamic state.

The expedition, however, was not yet entirely concluded. Several significant events occurred immediately after the conquest, including the marriage of the Prophet ﷺ to Ṣafiyyah bint Ḥuyayy رضي الله عنها, the poisoning incident involving a roasted sheep, and the division of the lands of Khaybar. These events form the final chapter of the Khaybar campaign.

Ṣafiyyah bint Ḥuyayy, the Poisoned Sheep, and the Return to Madinah

Following the surrender of Khaybar, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ remained in the oasis while the affairs arising from the campaign were organised. During this period, several events took place that are closely connected with the conclusion of the expedition.

Among those taken into custody after the conquest was Ṣafiyyah bint Ḥuyayy رضي الله عنها. She was the daughter of Ḥuyayy ibn Akhṭab, the former leader of Banū Naḍīr who had played a central role in organising the Confederates during the Battle of the Trench and had later remained with Banū Qurayẓah until the end of their siege.

Ṣafiyyah had previously been married to Kinānah ibn al-Rabīʿ, one of the leading figures of Khaybar. After the campaign, she was brought before the Prophet ﷺ.

The Prophet ﷺ offered her a choice. She could embrace Islam and marry him, or she could remain upon her religion and accept her freedom.

Ṣafiyyah chose to embrace Islam.

The Prophet ﷺ granted her freedom, and her emancipation formed her bridal gift (mahr). The marriage took place during the return journey from Khaybar.

The Companions later observed the Prophet's ﷺ consideration towards Ṣafiyyah. When she mounted her camel, he would lower his knee to assist her in mounting, demonstrating kindness and respect towards her despite the difficult circumstances through which she had recently passed.

Not long after the conquest, another significant incident occurred.

A Jewish woman named Zaynab bint al-Ḥārith prepared a roasted sheep and presented it to the Prophet ﷺ as a gift. Having learned that he preferred the shoulder, she placed poison throughout the animal, concentrating a greater amount in that portion.

The Prophet ﷺ and several Companions began eating from the meal.

After tasting a small piece, the Prophet ﷺ immediately stopped eating and said that the meat had informed him that it was poisoned.

One of the Companions, Bishr ibn al-Barāʾ ibn Maʿrūr رضي الله عنه, had already swallowed a portion before the warning was given. He later died from the effects of the poison.

The Prophet ﷺ survived the attempt, although authentic narrations indicate that he continued to experience the effects of the poison for the remainder of his life. During his final illness several years later, he remarked that he still felt the pain from the food he had eaten at Khaybar.

When questioned, Zaynab admitted that she had poisoned the food. According to the early sources, she explained that she wished to determine whether Muhammad ﷺ was truly a Prophet. She reasoned that if he were merely a king, she would rid her people of him, but if he were a Prophet, Allah would inform him.

The historical reports concerning what happened to Zaynab afterwards differ. Some narrations state that the Prophet ﷺ forgave her initially, while others report that she was later executed after Bishr ibn al-Barāʾ died from the poisoning. Because the early sources differ regarding the sequence of these events, it is sufficient to note that there is no complete agreement among the historians on this point.

After the affairs of Khaybar had been settled, the Prophet ﷺ prepared to return to Madinah.

The conquest of Khaybar significantly strengthened the Muslim community. It removed a major source of military opposition north of Madinah, secured an important agricultural region and demonstrated that the Muslims were now capable of conducting successful campaigns against some of the strongest fortified settlements in Arabia.

As the army travelled back to Madinah, it was met with another joyful development. During the Prophet's ﷺ absence, a group of Muslims who had spent many years in Abyssinia returned to Arabia under the leadership of Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه. Their arrival reunited families that had been separated since the earliest years of Islam and marked the end of one of the longest migrations in the history of the Muslim community.

The Return of the Emigrants from Abyssinia and the Legacy of Khaybar

As the Muslims returned from Khaybar, they were met with welcome news from the west. A group of believers who had sought refuge in Abyssinia (al-Ḥabashah) many years earlier had finally returned to the Arabian Peninsula.

Among them was Jaʿfar ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and the leader of the emigrants who had remained under the protection of the Negus (al-Najāshī) for many years. They had left Makkah during the earliest period of persecution, long before the Hijrah to Madinah, and had lived safely in Abyssinia while Islam continued to spread in Arabia.

When Jaʿfar arrived at Khaybar after the fighting had concluded, the Prophet ﷺ warmly welcomed him.

The Prophet ﷺ embraced Jaʿfar and said:

"I do not know which gives me greater joy: the conquest of Khaybar or the arrival of Jaʿfar."

Sunan Abī Dāwūd (Hadith 5235)

The reunion marked the end of one of the longest separations experienced by the early Muslims. Many of those returning had spent more than a decade away from their families and had remained steadfast in their faith throughout their exile.

The Prophet ﷺ also allocated a share of the spoils of Khaybar to the returning emigrants, despite their not having participated in the campaign itself. This recognised the sacrifices they had made during the earliest years of Islam and their long service to the Muslim community.

Following the return to Madinah, the impact of the conquest became increasingly apparent.

Militarily, Khaybar removed the strongest remaining hostile centre north of Madinah. For many years, influential figures based there had encouraged opposition to the Muslims, supported hostile tribes and played a leading role in organising the Confederates. With Khaybar now under Muslim authority, the northern frontier became considerably more secure.

Economically, the fertile oasis greatly strengthened the resources of the Islamic state. The agricultural agreement concluded with the cultivators ensured that the land remained productive while providing a regular source of food and revenue for the Muslim community. This increased stability benefited both the Muhājirūn, many of whom had lost their property when they left Makkah, and the wider community in Madinah.

Politically, the conquest further enhanced the standing of the Muslims among the tribes of Arabia. The successful capture of one of the most heavily fortified settlements in the region demonstrated that the Islamic state had become the dominant power in the Ḥijāz. Many tribes that had previously remained neutral now recognised the growing strength and permanence of the Muslim community.

The events following Khaybar also reflected the wisdom of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah. The peace established with Quraysh enabled the Muslims to deal with threats elsewhere without the danger of simultaneous attack from Makkah. What many Companions had initially regarded as difficult concessions had now produced clear strategic benefits.

With Khaybar secured and internal stability strengthened, the Prophet ﷺ entered a new phase of his mission. The message of Islam was no longer directed only to the tribes of Arabia. Confident in the security that had been achieved, he began sending letters inviting neighbouring rulers and emperors to Islam.

The next major section in the Sīrah is The Letters to the Kings and Rulers, marking the first formal invitation of the great powers surrounding Arabia to the message of Islam.

The Decision to Invite the Rulers Beyond Arabia

Following the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah and the successful Expedition of Khaybar, the political landscape of Arabia had changed significantly. The Muslim community was no longer occupied solely with defending Madinah against repeated attacks. The truce with Quraysh provided a period of stability, while the conquest of Khaybar secured the northern approaches to the city.

With these immediate threats diminished, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ entered a new phase of his mission.

From the beginning of his prophethood, his message had been universal rather than tribal. Although his earliest efforts had focused upon the people of Makkah and later the tribes of Arabia, the Qur'an repeatedly affirmed that he had been sent as a mercy and a messenger for all humanity. The growing stability of the Islamic state now provided an opportunity to communicate that message beyond the Arabian Peninsula.

The Prophet ﷺ therefore resolved to send official letters to the rulers of the neighbouring kingdoms and empires, inviting them to worship Allah alone and to accept Islam. These were not declarations of war or demands for political submission. They were diplomatic communications delivered through recognised envoys in accordance with the customs of international relations of the time.

Before dispatching the letters, the Prophet ﷺ was informed that many foreign rulers would not accept official correspondence unless it bore the seal of its sender.

He therefore commissioned the manufacture of a silver signet ring.

The ring was engraved with three words arranged on separate lines:

• Allah
• Messenger
• Muhammad

The inscription read:

Muhammad Rasul Allah (Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah).

The Prophet ﷺ used this seal to authenticate his official correspondence. After his lifetime, the ring remained in the possession of Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه, then ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه, and later ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه until it was accidentally lost in the Well of Arīs near Madinah.

The letters were entrusted to carefully selected Companions known for their character, wisdom and ability to undertake long and often hazardous journeys. Each envoy was chosen with consideration for the destination to which he was being sent and the customs of the people he would encounter.

Among the rulers who received letters were:

• Heraclius, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire.
• Khosrow II (Kisrā), Emperor of the Sasanian Persian Empire.
• The Negus (al-Najāshī), ruler of Abyssinia.
• Al-Muqawqis, the Byzantine governor of Egypt.
• Al-Mundhir ibn Sāwā, ruler of Bahrain.
• Hawdhah ibn ʿAlī, ruler of al-Yamāmah.
• Al-Ḥārith ibn Abī Shimr al-Ghassānī, the Ghassānid ruler under Byzantine authority.

Although each letter was adapted to its recipient, they conveyed the same central invitation: to worship Allah alone, recognise Muhammad ﷺ as His Messenger, and accept Islam freely.

One of the recurring openings of these letters was:

"In the name of Allah, the Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate. From Muhammad, the servant of Allah and His Messenger..."

The letters frequently included the Qur'anic invitation directed to the People of the Book:

"Say, 'O People of the Scripture! Come to a word that is equitable between us and you: that we will worship none but Allah, associate nothing with Him, and not take one another as lords besides Allah.' If they turn away, then say, 'Bear witness that we are those who submit to Allah.'"

Qur'an 3:64

The Letter to Heraclius, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire

Among the most significant of the Prophet Muhammad's ﷺ diplomatic missions was the letter sent to Heraclius, the Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. At the time, Byzantium was the most powerful Christian empire in the region, extending across much of the eastern Mediterranean, Anatolia, the Levant and Egypt.

The Prophet ﷺ entrusted the letter to Diḥyah ibn Khalīfah al-Kalbī رضي الله عنه, one of the Companions noted for his intelligence and dignified bearing. Diḥyah travelled north and delivered the letter to the Byzantine governor of Busra, who arranged for it to be forwarded to Heraclius.

At that time, Heraclius was in the region of Syria, having recently celebrated his victory over the Sasanian Persian Empire. According to the authentic narrations, he received the Prophet's letter with seriousness rather than dismissing it outright.

The letter read:

"In the name of Allah, the Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate. From Muhammad, the servant of Allah and His Messenger, to Heraclius, the ruler of the Byzantines. Peace be upon whoever follows guidance. I invite you to Islam. Accept Islam and you will be safe, and Allah will grant you your reward twice over. But if you turn away, then upon you will be the sin of your subjects."

The letter then concluded with the Qur'anic verse:

"Say, 'O People of the Scripture! Come to a word that is equitable between us and you: that we will worship none but Allah, associate nothing with Him, and not take one another as lords besides Allah.' If they turn away, then say, 'Bear witness that we are those who submit to Allah.'"

Qur'an 3:64

Rather than responding immediately, Heraclius sought further information about the man claiming prophethood in Arabia.

At that time, a trading caravan from Makkah happened to be present in the region under the leadership of Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb, who had not yet embraced Islam. Heraclius ordered that the caravan be brought before him.

Abū Sufyān later narrated the meeting in detail.

Heraclius instructed that Abū Sufyān stand before him while the other members of the caravan stood behind. He warned them that if Abū Sufyān lied, they were to expose his falsehood.

Heraclius then questioned him extensively about Muhammad ﷺ.

He asked about his lineage, whether anyone before him had made a similar claim, whether his followers were increasing or decreasing, whether any of them abandoned the religion after embracing it, whether he had ever been known to lie before claiming prophethood, whether he betrayed agreements, and what teachings he brought.

Although Abū Sufyān was at that time one of the Prophet's greatest opponents, he later admitted that he answered truthfully because he feared his companions would expose any deliberate falsehood.

After hearing the answers, Heraclius reflected upon them.

He observed that the characteristics described by Abū Sufyān were consistent with those traditionally associated with prophets. He remarked that if the information was accurate, Muhammad ﷺ would eventually possess the land upon which they were standing.

According to the authentic narration, Heraclius further stated that if he were able to reach Muhammad ﷺ, he would go to him and, were he in his presence, would wash his feet.

Despite these observations, Heraclius did not publicly embrace Islam.

The authentic narrations indicate that he recognised the significance of Muhammad's ﷺ claim but also understood the political consequences that openly accepting Islam would have within the Byzantine Empire. When he tested the reaction of his leading officials, they rejected the idea strongly. Seeing their response, Heraclius publicly reaffirmed their existing faith, and the gathering dispersed.

Although the Byzantine emperor did not accept Islam, the exchange demonstrated that the message of the Prophet ﷺ had reached the highest political authority in the Christian world. It also preserved one of the earliest non-Muslim assessments of the Prophet's ﷺ character, given by Abū Sufyān himself before he became a Muslim.

The Letter to Khosrow II and the Mission to Yemen

The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ also sent a letter to Khosrow II (Kisrā), the ruler of the Sasanian Persian Empire. At the time, the Sasanian Empire was one of the two great superpowers of the region, extending from Mesopotamia across Persia to Central Asia. Although it had recently suffered major defeats at the hands of the Byzantine Empire, it remained a formidable political and military power.

The Prophet ﷺ entrusted the letter to ʿAbdullāh ibn Ḥudhāfah al-Sahmī رضي الله عنه, who travelled east to deliver it through the appropriate Persian authorities until it reached the imperial court.

The letter followed the same pattern as those sent to other rulers, inviting Khosrow to worship Allah alone and to accept Islam.

Unlike Heraclius, Khosrow reacted with anger.

According to the authentic narrations, when the letter was read before him and he saw that the name of Muhammad ﷺ appeared before his own, he regarded it as an insult to his imperial status. In his anger, he tore the letter into pieces.

When news of this reached the Prophet ﷺ, he supplicated:

"May Allah tear his kingdom apart."

Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Hadith 4424)

The Prophet's supplication would later be regarded by Muslim historians as fulfilled through the rapid collapse of the Sasanian Empire within a generation.

Khosrow was not content merely to reject the invitation.

He wrote to Bādhān, the Persian governor of Yemen, ordering him to arrest Muhammad ﷺ and send him to Persia.

At that time, Yemen remained under Persian administration, and Bādhān was one of the emperor's trusted governors. In obedience to the imperial command, he dispatched two officials to Madinah with instructions to summon the Prophet ﷺ to Yemen so that he could then be taken to the Persian court.

The two envoys arrived in Madinah and conveyed the order of the Persian emperor.

The Prophet ﷺ did not respond immediately.

Instead, he instructed them to return the following day.

That night, revelation informed the Prophet ﷺ that Khosrow had been killed.

His own son, Kavadh II (Shīrūyah), had overthrown him and assumed the Persian throne after a period of growing internal unrest within the empire.

The following day, the Prophet ﷺ informed the Persian envoys that their emperor had been killed on a specific night and that his son had succeeded him.

The envoys were astonished.

They returned to Yemen and informed Bādhān of what Muhammad ﷺ had said.

Bādhān decided to wait until news arrived from Persia before taking further action.

Some time later, official correspondence reached Yemen confirming that Khosrow had indeed been killed on the very night identified by the Prophet ﷺ and that his son had become ruler. The new emperor instructed the provincial governors to suspend any action against Muhammad ﷺ until further notice.

When Bādhān compared the official Persian communication with the information previously given by the Prophet ﷺ, he became convinced that such knowledge could not have been obtained through ordinary means.

Bādhān embraced Islam.

Many Persians living in Yemen also accepted Islam, making Yemen one of the first regions outside the Ḥijāz to enter Islam under its existing local administration rather than through military conquest.

This development proved to be of considerable importance. The peaceful acceptance of Islam by the Persian governor of Yemen extended the influence of the Muslim community into one of the most prosperous regions of southern Arabia and demonstrated that the Prophet's ﷺ message was reaching peoples beyond the Arab tribes.

The Letters to al-Muqawqis, the Negus, and the Arab Rulers

Among the rulers who received letters from the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was al-Muqawqis, the Byzantine governor of Egypt. Although Egypt formed part of the Byzantine Empire, al-Muqawqis exercised considerable authority over its administration and was recognised as the leading official of the province.

The Prophet ﷺ entrusted the letter to Ḥāṭib ibn Abī Baltaʿah رضي الله عنه, who travelled to Egypt and presented the invitation with wisdom and courtesy.

Ḥāṭib explained that previous prophets had invited rulers to the worship of Allah alone and reminded al-Muqawqis that accepting the message of a new prophet did not require rejecting the truth revealed to earlier prophets.

Al-Muqawqis listened respectfully.

Although he did not embrace Islam, neither did he reject the invitation with hostility. Instead, he treated the Prophet's envoy honourably and replied with a courteous letter.

In his response, al-Muqawqis acknowledged that he had read the Prophet's letter carefully and recognised that a prophet had been expected to appear. However, he stated that he believed the awaited prophet would arise in the region of Syria rather than Arabia.

Together with his reply, al-Muqawqis sent several gifts to the Prophet ﷺ. Among them were Māriyah al-Qibṭiyyah رضي الله عنها and her sister Sīrīn, who had embraced Islam during the journey to Madinah according to the majority of the early sources. He also sent a mule named Duldul, a donkey named Yaʿfūr according to some reports, clothing made in Egypt and other valuable gifts.

Māriyah later became part of the Prophet's household and would give birth to his son, Ibrāhīm رضي الله عنه, who died in infancy.

The Prophet ﷺ also sent a letter to the Negus (al-Najāshī), the ruler of Abyssinia.

The early historical sources mention more than one letter addressed to the Negus. One was sent to the Christian ruler who had granted refuge to the Muslim emigrants during the early years of persecution in Makkah. The majority of classical scholars identify this ruler as Aṣḥamah ibn Abjar.

According to the authentic narrations, the Negus accepted Islam privately. He continued to govern his kingdom with justice while maintaining public stability among his people.

When news of the Negus's death reached Madinah, the Prophet ﷺ informed the Companions on the same day, despite the great distance separating the two lands. He then led the Muslims in Ṣalāt al-Janāzah al-Ghāʾib (the funeral prayer in absentia), making the Negus the first person for whom this prayer was performed in Islamic history.

The Prophet ﷺ also addressed letters to several Arab rulers.

Among them was al-Mundhir ibn Sāwā, the ruler of Bahrain.

Al-Mundhir received the letter respectfully and accepted Islam. Many of the Arab inhabitants of Bahrain likewise embraced Islam, while the Jewish and Christian communities were permitted to remain upon their religion under the terms established by the Islamic state.

Another letter was sent to Hawdhah ibn ʿAlī, the ruler of al-Yamāmah.

Hawdhah received the Prophet's envoy courteously but responded by suggesting that he would accept Islam if he were granted political authority after the Prophet ﷺ. The Prophet ﷺ rejected any proposal that made prophethood or leadership subject to political bargaining. Hawdhah therefore did not embrace Islam and died not long afterwards.

The Prophet ﷺ also sent a letter to al-Ḥārith ibn Abī Shimr al-Ghassānī, the Ghassānid ruler governing parts of Syria under Byzantine authority.

Unlike Heraclius, al-Ḥārith reacted angrily to the invitation. According to the early sources, he regarded the letter as a challenge to his authority and even considered marching against Madinah. Although no immediate campaign followed, relations between the Muslims and the Ghassānids became increasingly strained.

These diplomatic missions demonstrated the expanding reach of the Islamic message. Within only a few years of the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah, official correspondence from Madinah had reached the rulers of the greatest empires and kingdoms surrounding Arabia. Some responded with respect, others with hostility, and some accepted Islam, but all had now become aware of the growing influence of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and the Islamic state.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The dispatch of letters to the rulers of neighbouring kingdoms marked a new stage in the mission of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. Until this point, the Sīrah had largely centred on the establishment and defence of the Muslim community within Arabia. Following the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyyah and the conquest of Khaybar, the Prophet ﷺ was able to devote greater attention to conveying the message of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula through peaceful diplomatic means.

The letters themselves reflected the Prophet's established method of inviting others to Islam before any question of conflict arose. Each ruler was first presented with the opportunity to consider the message freely through an accredited envoy. The correspondence was respectful in tone and followed the recognised diplomatic customs of the period, demonstrating that the Islamic state was engaging with neighbouring powers according to accepted international practice.

The responses varied considerably.

Heraclius investigated the Prophet's claim with seriousness but did not publicly embrace Islam. Khosrow rejected the invitation with contempt and ordered the Prophet's arrest, yet his empire soon entered a period of political collapse following his assassination. Al-Muqawqis treated the Muslim envoy with courtesy and exchanged gifts but declined to accept Islam. The Negus accepted Islam according to the majority of the early Islamic sources, while rulers such as al-Mundhir ibn Sāwā embraced Islam together with many of their subjects.

These differing responses reflected the political and religious circumstances of each kingdom rather than a single, uniform reaction to the Prophet's message.

The missions also established diplomatic relationships that would influence later events in the Sīrah. Correspondence with Byzantine authorities would eventually form part of the background to the Expedition of Muʾtah and, later, the Expedition of Tabūk. The acceptance of Islam by Bādhān and the Persian administration in Yemen brought an important region of southern Arabia into the Muslim community without military conflict. Similarly, the peaceful acceptance of Islam in Bahrain demonstrated that entire regions could enter Islam through dialogue and diplomacy.

The letters also underscored the universal nature of the Prophet's mission. Unlike earlier prophets whose missions were directed primarily to particular communities, Muhammad ﷺ presented his message to rulers representing different peoples, languages and cultures. The invitation extended beyond the tribes of Arabia to the wider world known to the early Muslims.

Although not every ruler accepted the invitation, the missions established the presence of the Islamic state within the diplomatic landscape of the seventh century. Within only a few years of the Hijrah, rulers from Abyssinia to Persia had received official correspondence from Madinah inviting them to worship Allah alone.

The period immediately following these diplomatic missions witnessed continued growth in the influence of Islam throughout Arabia. While many neighbouring rulers had now heard the Prophet's message, events on the northern frontier soon drew the Muslims into a confrontation that would become the first major engagement with forces connected to the Byzantine Empire.

The next major section in the Sīrah is The Battle of Muʾtah, the largest military expedition undertaken by the Muslims up to that time and the first direct encounter between the Muslim army and the forces of the Byzantine frontier.