The preservation of the Qur'an is one of the most important questions in the historical study of Islam because the Islamic claim is not merely that the Qur'an was preserved in later manuscripts. The claim is that Allah revealed the Qur'an, safeguarded its transmission, and that the revelation was preserved through a combination of divine assurance, the Prophet's ﷺ reception and retention, continuous recitation and memorisation, written recording, and communal verification.

A proper examination must therefore consider both the oral and written transmission of the Qur'an. Neither should be treated as an afterthought to the other.

The Qur'an itself makes preservation a matter of divine promise:

Indeed, it is We who sent down the Reminder, and indeed, We will surely guard it.

Qur'an 15:9

The Arabic wording is significant. Allah says that He sent down the Dhikr and that He will guard it. Classical Muslim exegetes understood the Dhikr in this context to refer to the Qur'an and understood the verse as a promise of its preservation. The verse therefore establishes the theological claim of divine preservation. The historical question is then how that preservation was manifested through the transmission of the revelation. ^[1]

Preservation Began With the Revelation Itself

The preservation process did not begin when the first complete manuscript was produced.

According to the Qur'an and Hadith, preservation was already operating while revelation was being delivered to Muhammad ﷺ.

When Jibril عليه السلام brought revelation, Muhammad ﷺ was concerned that he might not retain every word. The Qur'an itself records this concern:

Do not rush your tongue trying to memorize ˹a revelation of˺ the Qur'an. It is certainly upon Us to collect it ˹in your heart˺ and to recite it. So once We have recited it, follow its recitation. Then it is certainly upon Us to make its meaning clear.

Qur'an 75:16–19

The passage is particularly important because it does not merely tell Muhammad ﷺ to memorise the Qur'an through his own effort. It says that its collection and recitation are upon Allah.

The classical explanation preserved from Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما is that Muhammad ﷺ would move his tongue rapidly while Jibril عليه السلام was reciting because he was anxious to retain the revelation immediately. He was then instructed to listen, after which Allah would gather the revelation in his heart and enable him to recite it. ^[2]

This interpretation is also reflected in the Hadith of Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما recorded in Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. The report explains that when Jibril عليه السلام came with revelation, Muhammad ﷺ would move his lips in an effort to retain it. The instruction was then given to listen carefully rather than rush ahead, because Allah would ensure its collection and recitation. ^[2]

The significance is substantial.

The Islamic account does not describe Muhammad ﷺ as an ordinary man hearing a long passage once and then depending entirely upon unaided human memory to reproduce it correctly. The Qur'an presents Allah as taking responsibility for the collection and recitation of the revelation in the Prophet's ﷺ heart.

“You Will Not Forget”

The Qur'an makes this point even more directly:

We will have you recite ˹the Qur'an, O Prophet,˺ so you will not forget, except what Allah wills.

Qur'an 87:6–7

Classical tafsir understood this passage as a divine assurance concerning Muhammad's ﷺ retention of the Qur'an. Al-Tabari explains that Allah was informing the Prophet ﷺ that He would teach him the Qur'an and preserve it for him. Ibn Kathir likewise interprets the verse as a divine promise that Muhammad ﷺ would be taught the Qur'an in a manner that enabled him to retain it. Al-Qurtubi records the same basic interpretation, explaining that Jibril would recite the revelation to Muhammad ﷺ and that he would retain it. ^[3]

The qualification “except what Allah wills” should not be ignored. It prevents us from turning the verse into the broader claim that Muhammad ﷺ was incapable of ever forgetting anything whatsoever. The Islamic claim concerns Allah's preservation of the revelation entrusted to him.

This distinction is important.

Muhammad ﷺ remained a human being. Human beings can forget ordinary matters. The claim concerning the Qur'an is more specific: Allah safeguarded the revelation so that ordinary human forgetfulness would not compromise the transmission of the Qur'an entrusted to His Messenger.

This is also why the Qur'anic wording should not be reduced to the simple statement that “Muhammad ﷺ had an exceptionally good memory.” The Qur'an attributes the preservation of the revelation ultimately to Allah.

The Prophet ﷺ Did Not Simply Memorise and Then Recite From Memory

The Hadith provide an important detail concerning how this preservation operated.

When Jibril عليه السلام came with revelation, Muhammad ﷺ listened to him. After Jibril departed, the Prophet ﷺ recited the revelation as it had been taught to him. ^[2]

The process can therefore be represented as:

Revelation from Allah

↓

Jibril عليه السلام delivers the revelation

↓

Muhammad ﷺ listens

↓

Allah gathers and preserves it in Muhammad's ﷺ heart

↓

Muhammad ﷺ recites what was revealed

↓

The Companions hear, memorise and learn it

The Qur'an consequently presents the preservation of revelation as beginning with Allah's own action rather than beginning with the later work of human scribes.

Jibril's Continuing Review of the Qur'an

The preservation process did not end when individual revelations had been delivered.

Abu Hurayrah رضي الله عنه reported:

“Gabriel used to repeat the recitation of the Qur'an with the Prophet ﷺ once a year, but he repeated it twice with him in the year he died.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4998 [4]

This is one of the most important Hadith for understanding the transmission of the Qur'an during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime.

The Qur'an was therefore not merely revealed and left unreviewed. According to the authentic report, Jibril عليه السلام reviewed the Qur'an with Muhammad ﷺ every year, and in the final year of his life the review occurred twice. ^[4]

The final review is particularly significant because it took place in the year of Muhammad's ﷺ death. It provided a final review between the Prophet ﷺ and the angel through whom the revelation had been delivered.

Another report states that Jibril would meet Muhammad ﷺ every night during Ramadan and study the Qur'an with him. ^[5]

This establishes another important feature of the transmission process: revelation was not merely received passively. It was repeatedly recited, reviewed and reinforced.

Preservation Through the Prophet's ﷺ Companions

The Qur'an was then transmitted directly from Muhammad ﷺ to his Companions.

The Prophet ﷺ specifically identified individuals from whom others should learn its recitation:

“Learn the recitation of the Qur'an from four persons: Ibn Mas'ud, Salim, Mu'adh and Ubayy ibn Ka'b.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 3806 ^[6]

The report names 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud, Salim the freedman of Abu Hudhayfah, Mu'adh ibn Jabal and Ubayy ibn Ka'b. ^[6]

This is important evidence for an organised oral transmission system during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime.

The Qur'an was not preserved in the memory of one individual alone.

Muhammad ﷺ taught it to his Companions.

Those Companions taught others.

Some became recognised authorities in Qur'anic recitation.

The revelation therefore existed as a living, communal recitation rather than as information possessed by only one person.

Memorisation Was a Principal Means of Transmission

The importance of memorisation can also be seen in the events following Muhammad's ﷺ death.

During the Battle of Yamamah, a number of the Companions known for their knowledge of the Qur'an were killed. 'Umar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه became concerned that continued deaths among the Qur'an reciters could create a danger to the preservation of the revelation. He therefore urged Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه to collect the Qur'an into a written compilation. ^[7]

This episode is often misunderstood.

It does not mean that the Qur'an was in danger of disappearing because nobody knew it.

The concern was precisely the opposite: so many people already possessed the Qur'an through memorisation that the deaths of a significant number of those reciters created a reason to strengthen the written record.

The oral tradition was therefore not replaced by the written collection. The written collection was introduced as an additional safeguard.

The First Collection Under Abu Bakr

Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه initially hesitated when 'Umar رضي الله عنه proposed collecting the Qur'an because Muhammad ﷺ himself had not ordered the Qur'an to be gathered into one single manuscript during his lifetime.

Abu Bakr asked:

“How can you do something which Allah's Messenger did not do?”

'Umar responded that the proposal was beneficial. After further discussion, Abu Bakr became convinced that the collection should be undertaken. ^[7]

Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه was selected for the task.

His selection was particularly appropriate because he had served as one of the scribes who recorded revelation for Muhammad ﷺ. Abu Bakr reminded him that he was a trusted person and that he had written revelation for the Messenger of Allah ﷺ. [7]

Zayd himself described the responsibility as extremely difficult:

“By Allah, if they had ordered me to shift one of the mountains, it would not have been heavier for me than what they ordered me concerning the collection of the Qur'an.” ^[7]

His task was therefore not treated casually.

Zayd's Method of Collection

This is one of the most important details in the entire history of Qur'anic preservation.

Zayd رضي الله عنه did not simply write down what he personally remembered.

He searched for the Qur'anic material.

The Hadith states that he collected it from written materials and from the memories of the Companions who had learned it. The report specifically mentions materials such as palm stalks, thin stones or stone tablets, shoulder blades and other written materials. ^[7]

This means that the first official collection brought together two forms of evidence that had already existed during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime:

written records of revelation

and

the memorised revelation preserved by the Companions.

This is a crucial point.

The written collection under Abu Bakr did not create the Qur'an.

It gathered into one manuscript form material that had already been preserved through the Prophet's ﷺ teaching, the Companions' memorisation and the written recording of revelation.

Written Preservation During Muhammad's ﷺ Lifetime

It would therefore be incorrect to suggest that the Qur'an was first written down only after Muhammad's ﷺ death.

The sources clearly establish that revelation was being written during his lifetime.

Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه was one of the scribes who wrote revelation for Muhammad ﷺ, and the account of the Abu Bakr collection explicitly refers to written Qur'anic material already existing before the collection was undertaken. ^[7]

The Prophet's ﷺ practice therefore involved both oral transmission and writing.

This is important because the two methods served different but complementary functions.

Memorisation allowed the revelation to remain continuously present in the minds and recitation of the community.

Writing provided a physical record against which recitation could be checked.

Neither method needed to stand alone.

The Qur'an Was Not Preserved by Manuscripts Alone

The historical evidence therefore does not support a model in which the Qur'an existed first as a purely oral tradition and only later became a written text.

Nor does it support a model in which the Companions simply found a collection of loose writings after Muhammad's ﷺ death and reconstructed the Qur'an from them.

The evidence presents something more substantial.

During Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime:

the revelation was received from Jibril عليه السلام;

Allah promised its collection and preservation in Muhammad's ﷺ heart;

Muhammad ﷺ was enabled to retain and recite it;

Jibril عليه السلام reviewed it with him;

Muhammad ﷺ taught it to his Companions;

Companions memorised it and became recognised reciters;

and revelation was written down by designated scribes.

After Muhammad's ﷺ death, when the deaths of Qur'an reciters at Yamamah raised concerns about the continued strength of the oral transmission network, Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه commissioned Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه to collect the existing written and memorised material into a single manuscript. ^[7]

The written and oral traditions therefore did not compete with one another. They operated together.

The Qur'an's Own Description of Its Preservation

When these Qur'anic passages are considered together, a pattern emerges.

Allah says:

Indeed, it is We who sent down the Reminder, and indeed, We will surely guard it.

Qur'an 15:9

Allah says:

It is certainly upon Us to collect it and to recite it.

Qur'an 75:17

Allah says:

We will have you recite ˹the Qur'an, O Prophet,˺ so you will not forget, except what Allah wills.

Qur'an 87:6–7

These verses should not be treated as isolated statements.

Taken together, they present a sequence:

Allah sends down the revelation.

Allah promises to guard it.

Allah undertakes its collection and recitation.

Allah enables the Prophet ﷺ to retain it.

The Hadith then provide historical detail concerning how this preservation manifested itself:

Jibril عليه السلام delivered the revelation.

Muhammad ﷺ received and recited it.

Jibril عليه السلام reviewed it annually.

The review occurred twice in the final year.

The Prophet ﷺ taught recognised reciters among his Companions.

The Companions memorised the revelation.

Scribes recorded it during his lifetime.

After Yamamah, Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه commissioned its written collection using the existing written and memorised material. [4][6][7]

The Qur'anic claim of preservation therefore has both a theological dimension and a historical transmission mechanism.

The theological claim is that Allah Himself safeguards His revelation.

The historical question is whether the transmission mechanisms described by the earliest sources are sufficient to explain how the Qur'an was preserved.

That question must be examined through the evidence rather than assumed.

An Important Distinction Concerning Human Forgetfulness

This also answers an obvious question: What if Muhammad ﷺ forgot something?

The answer cannot simply be that Muslims believe he had a perfect human memory in every circumstance.

The Qur'an does not make that claim.

Instead, it attributes the preservation of the revelation to Allah:

We will have you recite ˹the Qur'an, O Prophet,˺ so you will not forget, except what Allah wills.

Qur'an 87:6–7

The Qur'an's wording therefore places the preservation of revelation within divine protection rather than ordinary human ability.

At the same time, the qualification “except what Allah wills” must be retained in any serious discussion. Classical exegetes discussed the meaning of this exception, including whether it relates to material Allah might cause to be forgotten or to matters otherwise governed by His will. [3]

The relevant claim is therefore precise:

Islam does not require the argument that Muhammad ﷺ was incapable of ordinary human forgetfulness. It requires the claim that Allah safeguarded the Qur'anic revelation entrusted to him.

That claim is then reinforced by the repeated review of the Qur'an with Jibril عليه السلام and by the independent oral and written transmission among the Companions.

The Significance of the Dual Preservation System

The resulting system was therefore considerably more comprehensive than a single person memorising a text.

There was a Prophetic source.

There was angelic delivery and review.

There was divine assurance of preservation.

There was Prophetic recitation.

There were multiple Companions who memorised and taught the Qur'an.

There were written records made during the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime.

There was communal recitation.

There was the Abu Bakr collection based upon written and memorised evidence.

This is why preservation must be studied through both channels.

If one examines manuscripts without examining memorisation, the history is incomplete.

If one examines memorisation without examining written transmission, the history is equally incomplete.

The strength of the traditional Islamic preservation claim lies precisely in the interaction of the two.

The next part will examine the oral preservation in greater depth, including the number and role of Qur'an reciters, the Prophet's ﷺ teaching methods, communal correction, the final review with Jibril عليه السلام, reports concerning Companions who knew the Qur'an by heart, and the important distinction between the Qur'an's preservation and the later development of the Qirāʾāt. This is necessary before moving to the written compilation and the later Uthmanic standardisation.

The preservation of the Qur'an through memorisation was already firmly established during the lifetime of Muhammad ﷺ. The revelation was not retained by the Prophet ﷺ alone. It was learned directly from him by numerous Companions, among whom were recognised Qur'an teachers, reciters and scholars. Some had mastered the complete revelation, while others had memorised substantial portions and became authorities in particular aspects of its recitation.

The surviving sources do not provide a complete census of every Companion who had memorised the entire Qur'an. It would therefore be historically unsound to give an exact number. What the sources do establish is that the Qur'an was distributed among a considerable body of memorizers and teachers, creating a system in which the revelation was preserved through many human transmitters rather than depending upon the memory of a single individual.

The Prophet ﷺ Identified the Principal Qur'an Teachers

'Abdullah ibn 'Amr رضي الله عنهما reported that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ said:

“Learn the recitation of the Qur'an from four: Ibn Mas'ud, Salim, the freedman of Abu Hudhayfah, Ubayy and Mu'adh ibn Jabal.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 3806 ^[8]

This instruction is important because Muhammad ﷺ was identifying recognised authorities from whom the Qur'an should be learned. The four named were 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud, Salim, Ubayy ibn Ka'b and Mu'adh ibn Jabal رضي الله عنهم.

The instruction demonstrates that Qur'anic transmission was already developing into a structured system of teaching during the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime. The Qur'an was not simply memorised privately and independently by individuals. It was learned through recognised teachers who had themselves received it through direct transmission from Muhammad ﷺ.

'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud رضي الله عنه

'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud رضي الله عنه was among the earliest Muslims and became one of the foremost authorities in Qur'anic knowledge.

He stated:

“By Allah, I learnt over seventy Surahs direct from Allah's Messenger ﷺ.”

He continued by saying that the Companions knew that he was among those who knew Allah's Book best of them all, although he did not claim to be the best of them. ^[9]

Sahih al-Bukhari 5000^[9]

This testimony is particularly significant because Ibn Mas'ud was describing direct oral transmission. He did not acquire those seventy-plus surahs from a later manuscript or from a distant chain of teachers. He stated that he learned them directly from the Messenger of Allah ﷺ.^[9]

His position was also recognised by the wider community. Muhammad ﷺ specifically included him among the four from whom Muslims were instructed to learn the Qur'an. ^[8]

Ibn Mas'ud therefore represents one of the strongest examples of the first generation's direct oral reception of the revelation.

Ubayy ibn Ka'b رضي الله عنه

Ubayy ibn Ka'b رضي الله عنه was another of the foremost Qur'an authorities among the Companions.

'Umar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه said:

“Our best Qur'an reciter is Ubayy, and our best judge is 'Ali.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4481 ^[10]

This statement is especially important because it comes from 'Umar رضي الله عنه, one of the senior Companions and later the second caliph.

Ubayy was therefore not merely one of many people who happened to know the Qur'an. He was recognised by the Companions as an outstanding authority in its recitation.

Muhammad ﷺ had already instructed Muslims to learn the Qur'an from Ubayy, and 'Umar رضي الله عنه subsequently described him as the best Qur'an reciter among them. ^[8][10]

Ubayy also belonged to the group of Companions whom Anas ibn Malik رضي الله عنه identified as having collected the Qur'an during the lifetime of the Prophet ﷺ. ^[11]

Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه

Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه occupies a particularly important position because he combined two forms of Qur'anic expertise.

He was a reciter and transmitter of the Qur'an, and he was also one of the scribes who wrote revelation for Muhammad ﷺ.

Anas ibn Malik رضي الله عنه named Zayd among the Companions who had collected the Qur'an during the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime. ^[11]

His importance became even greater after Muhammad's ﷺ death, when Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه entrusted him with the first formal collection of the Qur'an into a single written manuscript.

This later responsibility was not given to someone unfamiliar with the Qur'an. Zayd had already learned the revelation and had served as a scribe of revelation during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime.

His position therefore connected the oral preservation of the Qur'an with its written preservation.

Mu'adh ibn Jabal رضي الله عنه

Mu'adh ibn Jabal رضي الله عنه was likewise identified by Muhammad ﷺ as one of the four from whom the Qur'an should be learned. ^[8]

He was also among the Companions whom Anas identified as having collected the Qur'an during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime. ^[11]

Mu'adh was subsequently sent by Muhammad ﷺ to Yemen as a teacher and religious authority. His role illustrates how Qur'anic knowledge was carried beyond the immediate community of Madinah and transmitted to Muslims in other regions.

Salim رضي الله عنه

Salim, the freedman of Abu Hudhayfah رضي الله عنه, is particularly significant because Muhammad ﷺ included him among the four principal teachers of Qur'anic recitation. ^[8]

His inclusion demonstrates that Qur'anic authority was not determined simply by tribal status, wealth or social position. A freedman could become one of the people whom the Prophet ﷺ himself instructed the community to learn the Qur'an from.

The criterion was knowledge and mastery of the revelation.

Abu Zayd رضي الله عنه

Anas ibn Malik رضي الله عنه also named Abu Zayd among those who had collected the Qur'an during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime. ^[11]

The report is important because it provides evidence of several Companions possessing comprehensive knowledge of the revelation before the Prophet's ﷺ death.

It must, however, be understood alongside the other reports. The fact that Anas named four Companions does not mean that only four people had memorised the Qur'an or that nobody else possessed extensive knowledge of it. Other authentic reports identify additional Qur'an authorities and large groups of qurrāʾ.

How Many Companions Memorised the Entire Qur'an?

The question of numbers requires particular care.

The authentic Hadith do not give us a complete register of every Companion who had memorised the entire Qur'an by the time Muhammad ﷺ died. Consequently, no precise historical figure can responsibly be presented as the total number.

What the sources establish is more important than an unsupported number.

They identify several Companions who had comprehensively collected the Qur'an.

They identify specific Companions whom Muhammad ﷺ instructed Muslims to learn the Qur'an from.

They describe large groups of qurrāʾ, recognised Qur'an reciters and teachers.

And they record the deaths of substantial numbers of these reciters at Bi'r Ma'unah and later at Yamamah.

The evidence therefore establishes that complete and extensive Qur'anic memorisation was widely distributed among the early Muslim community, even though the surviving sources do not permit us to calculate an exact total.

The Seventy Reciters at Bi'r Ma'unah

One of the clearest indications of the scale of Qur'anic memorisation is the incident of Bi'r Ma'unah.

During Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime, approximately seventy Companions known as al-Qurrāʾ were sent to teach people. They were subsequently betrayed and killed.

The designation qurrāʾ is significant. These were recognised reciters and religious teachers, not merely individuals who happened to know a few passages of the Qur'an.

Their deaths demonstrate that a sizeable body of Qur'an specialists already existed while Muhammad ﷺ was alive.

This also provides important historical context for what happened later at Yamamah.

The Death of the Reciters at Yamamah

After Muhammad's ﷺ death, a large number of Qur'an reciters were killed during the Battle of Yamamah.

'Umar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه became concerned that if further Qur'an reciters were killed in battle, the oral transmission network could be weakened. He therefore urged Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه to have the Qur'an collected into a written compilation. ^[12]

This event demonstrates the importance of the memorizers to the preservation of the Qur'an.

The concern arose because people possessed the Qur'an in their memories.

If there had been no substantial body of memorizers, the deaths of the qurrāʾ would not have created this particular concern.

The written collection that followed was therefore not a replacement for an absent oral tradition. It was a further safeguard for a revelation that already existed both in written materials and in the memories of the Muslim community.

The Companions Corrected One Another

The oral transmission of the Qur'an also involved direct listening and correction.

Muhammad ﷺ himself listened to his Companions recite the Qur'an.

In one well-known incident, he asked Ibn Mas'ud رضي الله عنه to recite the Qur'an to him. Ibn Mas'ud was surprised and asked why he should recite to Muhammad ﷺ when the Qur'an had been revealed to him.

The Prophet ﷺ replied that he liked to hear it from another person.

Ibn Mas'ud then recited, and Muhammad ﷺ listened to him. ^[13]

This demonstrates that Qur'anic transmission involved more than memorising a text in isolation.

There was a continual process of:

hearing,

reciting,

listening,

checking,

and correcting.

This process began with Muhammad ﷺ and continued among the Companions and their students.

Memorisation Was Reinforced by Repeated Recitation

The Qur'an was not memorised once and then placed aside.

It was repeatedly recited in prayer and worship.

The Companions recited it to one another.

Teachers listened to their students.

Students listened to their teachers.

The Qur'an was recited publicly and privately.

This continual repetition was fundamental to its preservation because the text remained active within the memories of the community.

A memorised text that is rarely recited depends heavily upon individual memory.

The Qur'an was different: its memorisation was continually reinforced by its use in religious life.

Ramadan and the Review With Jibril عليه السلام

The connection between Ramadan and Qur'anic preservation goes back directly to the Prophet ﷺ.

Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما reported:

“Jibril used to meet him every night in Ramadan until the end of the month, and Allah's Messenger ﷺ used to recite the Qur'an to him.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4997 ^[14]

The report describes a nightly meeting throughout Ramadan in which Muhammad ﷺ recited the Qur'an to Jibril عليه السلام.

This is particularly significant when considered alongside the Qur'anic statement:

It is certainly upon Us to collect it ˹in your heart˺ and to recite it.

Qur'an 75:17

The Qur'an describes Allah as taking responsibility for the preservation and recitation of the revelation, while the Hadith provides historical detail concerning the repeated review between Muhammad ﷺ and Jibril عليه السلام.

The Final Review of the Qur'an

Another authentic report states:

“Gabriel used to repeat the recitation of the Qur'an with the Prophet ﷺ once a year, but he repeated it twice with him in the year he died.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4998 

The final year therefore contained two reviews of the Qur'an between Muhammad ﷺ and Jibril عليه السلام.

This is one of the most significant pieces of evidence concerning the preservation of the revelation during the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime.

The Qur'an was not simply revealed over approximately twenty-three years and then left without a final review.

According to the authentic Hadith, Jibril عليه السلام repeatedly reviewed it with Muhammad ﷺ, and the review was doubled during the final year of his life. [24]

Ramadan and the Continuing Practice of Qur'anic Recitation

The connection between Ramadan and Qur'anic recitation continued after the death of Muhammad ﷺ.

Tarawih is a Sunnah Mu'akkadah, a highly emphasised and established Sunnah of Ramadan. Muhammad ﷺ performed the Ramadan night prayer, and during the caliphate of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه the Muslims were gathered behind a single imam for the communal night prayer. This practice became established as Tarawih.

One of the most widespread practices associated with Tarawih is the completion of the entire Qur'an during Ramadan.

A hafiz, one who has memorised the entire Qur'an, commonly leads the congregation through the Qur'an from memory over the course of the month.

The significance for preservation is considerable.

The imam recites the Qur'an from memory.

The congregation listens.

Other huffaz may be present among the congregation.

An error in recitation can be identified and corrected.

The same Qur'an is therefore being reproduced publicly from human memory, while other people who know the same revelation are able to hear and verify the recitation.

The Complete Qur'an Is Heard From Memory

The practice of completing the Qur'an during Ramadan means that, year after year, Muslim communities hear the entire revelation recited aloud.

The practice varies between communities and mosques, but the widespread completion of the Qur'an during Tarawih provides a remarkable example of the continuing oral preservation of the complete text.

A manuscript may preserve the written form of the Qur'an.

A hafiz preserves it in memory.

A congregation hears it.

Other memorizers can verify it.

The process is repeated year after year.

This is not merely a historical practice preserved in books. It remains a living method of Qur'anic transmission.

The Significance of the Hafiz

The existence of the huffaz provides an important additional layer of preservation.

A manuscript can be damaged.

A manuscript can be lost.

An individual can make a mistake.

But when a text is simultaneously preserved in manuscripts and memorised in its entirety by large numbers of people, each system provides a means of checking the other.

The preservation does not depend upon the assumption that every individual memoriser is incapable of error.

Rather, it depends upon multiple people possessing the same revelation and continually reciting it before others who know it.

This creates a distributed system of preservation.

If one person makes a mistake, another can correct him.

If a student misremembers a verse, the teacher can correct him.

If an imam makes an error during prayer, someone familiar with the passage can correct him.

If a written copy contains an error, it can be compared against the established recitation.

The oral and written traditions therefore reinforce one another.

Preservation Before the Mushaf

By the time the first formal collection was undertaken under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه, the Qur'an had already been preserved through this extensive oral system.

Muhammad ﷺ had received it.

Allah had promised its preservation.

Jibril عليه السلام had reviewed it with him.

Muhammad ﷺ had taught it to his Companions.

Companions had memorised it.

Recognised teachers had transmitted it.

Large groups of qurrāʾ had carried it to other communities.

And the revelation was continuously recited in worship.

The written collection therefore came into existence within an already established oral tradition.

This point is essential before examining the written evidence.

The first Mushaf was not the beginning of Qur'anic preservation.

It was a major additional stage in the preservation of a revelation that was already being preserved in the hearts, voices and written records of the Muslim community.

The next part will therefore examine the written preservation of the Qur'an during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime, the scribes who recorded revelation, the materials upon which it was written, the role of Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه, the collection commissioned by Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه, the evidence required for that collection, and the custody of the resulting Mushaf before the later standardisation under 'Uthman ibn 'Affan رضي الله عنه.

The written preservation of the Qur'an began during the lifetime of Muhammad ﷺ. Throughout the approximately twenty-three years of revelation, passages were memorised by the Companions and simultaneously recorded by scribes appointed to write for the Prophet ﷺ. The Qur'an was therefore preserved from the beginning through both oral transmission and written records.

The absence of a single bound Mushaf during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime does not mean that the Qur'an was unwritten. The written material existed as individual records on the writing materials available in seventh-century Arabia, while the complete revelation was also preserved in the memories and recitation of the Companions. The later Mushaf was the physical collection of this already transmitted revelation.

The Scribes of Revelation

Muhammad ﷺ maintained a group of literate Companions who wrote for him. Their duties included recording Qur'anic revelation as well as writing letters, treaties, administrative documents and other material. The classical biographical literature consequently preserves different numbers of the Prophet's scribes, depending upon whether the count includes only those who wrote revelation or the wider body who wrote for Muhammad ﷺ.

Among the most prominent scribes associated with revelation were Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, Zayd ibn Thabit, Ubayy ibn Ka'b, Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, Khalid ibn Sa'id ibn al-'As, Hanzalah ibn al-Rabi', Thabit ibn Qays ibn Shammaas, 'Abdullah ibn al-Arqam, 'Abdullah ibn Rawahah, Khalid ibn al-Walid, al-Mughirah ibn Shu'bah, 'Amr ibn al-'As, Aban ibn Sa'id ibn al-'As, Shurahbil ibn Hasanah and others. Classical scholars also preserve broader lists of the Prophet's scribes, reflecting the different functions they performed. ^[15]

The distinction between the different categories of scribes is important because the Prophet's written administration was extensive. Some were regular scribes of revelation, while others wrote revelation when required and also performed other secretarial duties. The existence of this wider scribal body demonstrates that writing was an established part of the Prophet's administration rather than an occasional activity undertaken by a single individual. [^[15]

Among these scribes, four figures are particularly important to the history of Qur'anic preservation: Zayd ibn Thabit, Ubayy ibn Ka'b, 'Uthman ibn 'Affan and 'Ali ibn Abi Talib رضي الله عنهم. Their importance rests not merely upon their literacy but upon their direct involvement in the transmission and preservation of the Qur'an.

Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه: Scribe of Revelation

Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه became one of the most important scribes of Qur'anic revelation. His role began during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime and continued through the two great stages of written preservation after the Prophet's ﷺ death: the collection under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه and the standardisation under 'Uthman رضي الله عنه.

When Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه later instructed Zayd to collect the Qur'an into a single manuscript, he reminded him:

“You are a young, intelligent man, and we do not suspect you ˹of telling lies˺, and you used to write the revelation for the Messenger of Allah ﷺ.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4986

^[16]

This statement establishes Zayd's role directly. He was not appointed to collect the Qur'an after Muhammad's ﷺ death because he had merely studied it from other people. He had personally served as a writer of revelation for Muhammad ﷺ.

The same Hadith records that Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه ordered Zayd to search for the written Qur'anic material and collect it. Zayd subsequently described the magnitude of the task and the sources from which he gathered the Qur'an. ^[16]

Ubayy ibn Ka'b رضي الله عنه

Ubayy ibn Ka'b رضي الله عنه was another foremost authority in Qur'anic transmission. Muhammad ﷺ specifically instructed the Companions to learn the Qur'an from him.

'Umar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه later said:

“Our best Qur'an reciter is Ubayy, and our best judge is 'Ali.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4481

^[17]

Ubayy's position was therefore both oral and written. He was recognised as one of the leading authorities in Qur'anic recitation and was also among those involved in the written transmission of revelation.

'Uthman ibn 'Affan رضي الله عنه

'Uthman ibn 'Affan رضي الله عنه was also among the Companions who wrote for Muhammad ﷺ. His significance in Qur'anic preservation extends from the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime into the later standardisation of the written Qur'an.

During Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime, 'Uthman was among those who participated in the writing of revelation. Later, as the third caliph, he commissioned the preparation of standard copies of the Qur'anic Mushaf and sent them to the principal centres of the expanding Muslim community.

His later responsibility therefore rested upon an earlier familiarity with the written revelation.

'Ali ibn Abi Talib رضي الله عنه

'Ali ibn Abi Talib رضي الله عنه was likewise among the literate Companions involved in the Prophet's written affairs. His responsibilities included writing important documents and agreements, while the broader historical literature also associates him with the written transmission of revelation.

'Ali was simultaneously one of the foremost authorities in Qur'anic knowledge. His combination of literacy, close companionship with Muhammad ﷺ and knowledge of revelation made him an important figure in the earliest generation of Qur'anic transmission.

Written Qur'anic Material Existed in Makkah

The existence of written Qur'anic material predates the Hijrah.

The well-known account of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab's رضي الله عنه conversion describes him entering the house of his sister Fatimah bint al-Khattab رضي الله عنها and finding her and her husband, Sa'id ibn Zayd رضي الله عنه, studying a written sheet containing Qur'anic verses. The passage was from Surah Ta-Ha.

The incident occurred while the Muslims were still in Makkah, before the establishment of the Muslim community in Madinah. It therefore provides historical evidence that Qur'anic passages were being written and circulated privately among Muslims during the early Makkan period. ^[18]

Written Qur'anic material was consequently not something introduced after the Hijrah or after Muhammad's ﷺ death.

The Revelation Was Written When It Was Received

The scribes did not wait until years after revelation to reconstruct what Muhammad ﷺ had received.

The established practice was to record newly revealed material.

The account of Qur'an 4:95 provides particularly detailed evidence. Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه was present when the verse was revealed. Muhammad ﷺ instructed him to write it, and Zayd recorded the revelation on a shoulder blade. When Ibn Umm Maktum رضي الله عنه raised the question of those who were unable to participate because of a genuine disability, further revelation was received and the qualifying words were added to the verse. [^[19]

The episode demonstrates the immediate relationship between revelation and writing:

revelation was received; Muhammad ﷺ conveyed it; the scribe recorded it; and subsequent revelation was incorporated into the text.

The written record therefore followed the revelation as it occurred rather than being reconstructed generations later.

The Physical Experience of Revelation and Immediate Transcription

The account of Zayd رضي الله عنه also preserves information about what occurred while Muhammad ﷺ was receiving revelation.

Zayd described the Prophet ﷺ experiencing the physical weight associated with the descent of revelation. When the revelation had been completed, Muhammad ﷺ dictated what had been revealed and instructed Zayd to write it.

This places the scribe directly beside Muhammad ﷺ at the point at which the revelation was being transmitted.

The process was therefore not dependent upon a distant recollection of what the Prophet ﷺ might have said years earlier. The revelation was received, recited and recorded within the same prophetic setting.

The Writing Materials

The writing materials of seventh-century Arabia differed from the bound paper codices familiar today.

The Qur'an was recorded on whatever suitable writing materials were available. These included prepared skins and parchment, palm stalks and leaves, shoulder blades and other bones, stones and other writing surfaces. The later collection under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه specifically refers to written material on palm stalks and flat stones, together with what had been preserved in the memories of the Companions. ^[20]

The use of different materials explains why the written Qur'an did not initially exist as one bound volume.

Individual passages could be written on separate materials and retained by different people while the complete revelation was simultaneously preserved through memorisation and recitation.

The Written Material Was Not the Only Record

The Qur'an was preserved through a system in which writing and memorisation continually reinforced one another.

A revealed passage could be:

received by Muhammad ﷺ;

recited by him to the Companions;

memorised by those who heard it;

written by a scribe;

recited again in prayer;

taught to other Companions;

and checked through repeated recitation.

This meant that the written record was never isolated from the living oral tradition.

The scribe recorded what Muhammad ﷺ dictated.

The memoriser retained what Muhammad ﷺ recited.

The community repeatedly heard the same revelation.

Each form of transmission therefore provided additional protection against individual error.

The Arrangement of the Revealed Verses

The Qur'an was revealed progressively over many years, but its final arrangement was not simply a chronological record of the order in which individual verses descended.

Muhammad ﷺ instructed his scribes where newly revealed verses belonged within the existing Qur'anic text.

Consequently, when a verse was revealed, the scribe was not merely recording a sentence without context. Its position within the relevant surah was part of the transmitted instruction.

This is important for understanding the later compilation.

The Companions were not required after Muhammad's ﷺ death to determine independently where every verse belonged. The arrangement had already been established during the period of revelation and was transmitted through the Prophet's ﷺ teaching, recitation and written instruction.

Zayd's Role Before the First Mushaf

Zayd ibn Thabit's رضي الله عنه later responsibility in the collection of the Qur'an therefore followed a much earlier role.

During Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime he had:

heard revelation directly from the Prophet ﷺ;

written revelation at the Prophet's ﷺ instruction;

learned and memorised the Qur'an;

participated in its oral transmission;

and become one of the recognised authorities on the revelation.

After Muhammad's ﷺ death, the same Zayd was entrusted with bringing together the written material into one complete collection.

This continuity is central to the history of the Mushaf.

The Qur'an Was Written Before It Was a Mushaf

The distinction between written Qur'anic material and the Mushaf is therefore fundamental.

The written Qur'an existed throughout Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime.

The Mushaf was the later physical collection of the complete Qur'an into a unified codex.

The absence of a single bound volume during the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime does not indicate that the revelation was unwritten. It reflects the manner in which written material was produced and preserved in that historical period.

By the time Muhammad ﷺ died, the Qur'an had already been:

written by appointed scribes;

memorised by numerous Companions;

taught publicly and privately;

recited in worship;

arranged under Prophetic instruction;

and repeatedly reviewed during the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime.

The Final Review With Jibril عليه السلام

Written preservation existed alongside the final oral review of the revelation.

Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما reported:

“Jibril used to meet him every night in Ramadan until the end of the month, and the Messenger of Allah ﷺ would recite the Qur'an to him.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4997

^[21]

Abu Hurayrah رضي الله عنه further reported:

“Gabriel used to repeat the recitation of the Qur'an with the Prophet ﷺ once a year, but he repeated it twice with him in the year he died.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4998

^[22]

The final year of Muhammad's ﷺ life therefore contained a double review of the Qur'an with Jibril عليه السلام.

The revelation that had been written, memorised and recited throughout the Prophetic mission was subjected to this final review before Muhammad's ﷺ death.

The State of the Qur'an When Muhammad ﷺ Died

When Muhammad ﷺ died, the Qur'an therefore existed simultaneously in several forms.

It was preserved in the memories of the Companions.

It was recited by recognised Qur'an teachers and qurrāʾ.

It existed in written records produced by the Prophet's ﷺ scribes.

Individual Companions possessed written portions.

Its verses had been arranged under Prophetic instruction.

It was continuously recited in worship.

And the revelation had undergone repeated review between Muhammad ﷺ and Jibril عليه السلام, including twice during the final year.

What did not yet exist was a single bound codex containing the entire Qur'an between two covers.

The next stage of preservation therefore concerned the collection of these existing written and memorised materials into the first complete Mushaf.

The first complete written collection of the Qur'an was completed during the caliphate of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq رضي الله عنه. This was not the creation of a new text, nor was it an attempt to reconstruct the Qur'an from memory after Muhammad ﷺ had died. The revelation had already been written during his lifetime, memorised by the Companions, recited publicly and privately, taught directly by Muhammad ﷺ, and reviewed with Jibril عليه السلام. The purpose of Abu Bakr's رضي الله عنه collection was to bring the existing written material together into one complete written collection while preserving the oral transmission alongside it. ^[23]

The Battle of Yamamah and the Death of the Qur'an Reciters

After the death of Muhammad ﷺ, the Muslim community faced the wars of apostasy. One of the most significant battles was Yamamah, fought against the followers of Musaylimah.

A large number of Companions who were recognised for their knowledge and memorisation of the Qur'an were killed.

Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه reported:

“Abu Bakr As-Siddiq sent for me when the people of Yamama had been killed... ‘Umar has come to me and said: Casualties were heavy among the Qurra' of the Qur'an on the day of the Battle of Yamama, and I am afraid that more heavy casualties may take place among the Qurra' on other battlefields, whereby a large part of the Qur'an may be lost. Therefore I suggest, you order that the Qur'an be collected.’”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4986

^[23]

'Umar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه was therefore concerned about the continuing loss of those who had memorised the revelation. His concern itself demonstrates the importance of memorisation within the first Muslim community. The Qur'an was already widely preserved in the memories of the Companions; the deaths of large numbers of its recognised reciters created a reason to strengthen the written record.

Abu Bakr's Initial Hesitation

Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه initially questioned the proposal because Muhammad ﷺ had not ordered that the entire Qur'an be gathered into one single manuscript during his lifetime.

He asked:

“How can you do something which Allah's Apostle did not do?”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4986

^[24]

'Umar رضي الله عنه continued to explain the benefit of the proposal until Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه accepted that the collection should be undertaken.

This decision did not alter the Qur'an. It brought together into one collection material that already existed in written and memorised form.

Why Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه Was Chosen

Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه entrusted the task to Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه.

He told him:

“You are a wise young man and we do not suspect you ˹of telling lies˺, and you used to write the revelation for the Messenger of Allah ﷺ. So you should search for the Qur'an and collect it in one book.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4986

^[25]

Zayd was particularly suited to the task because he had written revelation for Muhammad ﷺ and possessed direct knowledge of the Qur'an. His role therefore connected the written revelation of Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime with the first complete written collection after his death.

The Seriousness of Zayd's Responsibility

Zayd رضي الله عنه himself described the task as exceptionally difficult:

“By Allah, if they had ordered me to shift one of the mountains, it would not have been heavier for me than this ordering me to collect the Qur'an.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4986

^[26]

The statement illustrates the seriousness with which the first collection was undertaken. Zayd was not being asked to write down a text from his own memory. He was required to search for the existing Qur'anic material and bring it together.

Zayd's Method of Collection

Zayd رضي الله عنه explained precisely how he proceeded:

“So I started looking for the Qur'an and collecting it from what was written on palm stalks, thin white stones and also from the men who knew it by heart...”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4986

^[27]

The collection therefore drew upon two forms of preservation that already existed during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime: written records and memorisation.

The written evidence was gathered from the various materials upon which revelation had been recorded, while the oral transmission was represented by the Companions who had learned and memorised the Qur'an directly.

The first complete collection consequently did not depend upon either a single manuscript or a single person's memory.

The Written Revelation Already Existed

The historical significance of this process should not be overlooked.

The Qur'an was not first written after Muhammad's ﷺ death.

Zayd himself had been a scribe of revelation, and Abu Bakr's instruction explicitly referred to the written revelation already produced during the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime.

The surviving account therefore describes a process of collection, not initial composition.

The written materials existed before Abu Bakr's project. The memorised Qur'an existed before Abu Bakr's project. The task was to bring the dispersed written evidence together into one complete collection. ^[28]

The Arrangement of the Qur'an Was Already Established

The collection of the Qur'an also did not mean that Zayd رضي الله عنه was free to decide where individual verses should be placed.

The Qur'an had been revealed gradually, but the order in which revelation descended chronologically was not simply the order in which the verses appear in the completed Qur'an.

During Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime, newly revealed verses were assigned to their positions within the existing surahs.

A report attributed to 'Uthman ibn 'Affan رضي الله عنه records that when verses were revealed, Muhammad ﷺ would call one of his scribes and instruct him to place the newly revealed material in the surah in which the relevant subject belonged. ^[29]

This report is transmitted in Sunan Abi Dawud 786, although al-Albani graded this particular chain weak. It therefore should not be presented as an independently established authentic Hadith. Nevertheless, the principle that the verse arrangement was transmitted through the Prophetic teaching of the Qur'an is part of the classical Muslim understanding of the Mushaf, and the question of the order of verses and surahs was discussed extensively by the scholars of 'Ulum al-Qur'an.

The important point for the history of Abu Bakr's collection is that Zayd was collecting a Qur'an whose verses had already been taught, recited and transmitted in an established arrangement. He was not creating that arrangement during the compilation.

The Qur'an's Collection and Recitation

The Qur'an itself attributes the collection and preservation of the revelation ultimately to Allah:

“Do not rush your tongue trying to memorize ˹a revelation of˺ the Qur'an. It is certainly upon Us to collect it and to recite it.”

Qur'an 75:16–17

The revelation was therefore not entrusted to Muhammad ﷺ as though he were required to preserve it through ordinary human memory alone. Allah states that its collection and recitation were under His care.

This is consistent with the Qur'anic statement:

“We will have you recite ˹the Qur'an, O Prophet,˺ so you will not forget, except what Allah wills.”

Qur'an 87:6–7

The Islamic understanding is consequently that the preservation of the revelation began with Allah's protection of it, continued through Muhammad's ﷺ reception and teaching of it, and was then maintained through the memorisation, recitation and writing of the Companions.

The Final Review With Jibril عليه السلام

The Qur'an had also undergone repeated review during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime.

Abu Hurayrah رضي الله عنه reported:

“Gabriel used to repeat the recitation of the Qur'an with the Prophet ﷺ once a year, but he repeated it twice with him in the year he died.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4998

^[30]

The Qur'an was therefore reviewed annually between Muhammad ﷺ and Jibril عليه السلام, with the review occurring twice during the final year of Muhammad's ﷺ life.

Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما also reported that Jibril عليه السلام met Muhammad ﷺ every night during Ramadan and that Muhammad ﷺ recited the Qur'an to him.

“Jibril used to meet him every night in Ramadan until the end of the month, and Allah's Messenger ﷺ used to recite the Qur'an to him.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4997

^[31]

The first complete written collection therefore followed a period in which the Qur'an had already undergone repeated Prophetic recitation and review.

The Verification Procedure

The classical literature concerning the first collection provides further details about the care exercised by Zayd رضي الله عنه.

Reports cited by later Qur'anic scholars state that Zayd required corroboration before accepting written Qur'anic material. One report transmitted by al-Layth ibn Sa'd states that people would bring Qur'anic material to Zayd and that he would not write a verse without two witnesses. Classical scholars differed concerning the precise meaning of these two witnesses. Some understood them as two people who could attest that the material had been written in the presence of Muhammad ﷺ; others explained the testimony as involving written and memorised evidence. ^[32]

The significance is that Zayd was not simply copying whatever happened to be presented to him.

The material was subjected to corroboration through the transmission of the first Muslim community.

The Final Verses of Surah al-Tawbah

The strictness of this process is illustrated by the final passage Zayd رضي الله عنه located during his search.

He reported:

“...until I found the last part of Surat at-Tauba with Abi Khuzaima Al-Ansari, and I did not find it with anybody other than him.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4986

^[33]

The passage was Qur'an 9:128–129.

This statement does not mean that Zayd discovered two previously unknown verses, nor does it mean that Abu Khuzaymah رضي الله عنه was the only Companion who knew them.

The point was that Zayd had located the written witness for those verses with Abu Khuzaymah and had not found the same written material with another person.

The Companions already knew the verses through memorisation and recitation. The requirement being applied during the written collection concerned the documentary evidence being gathered for the complete written compilation. This interpretation is also reflected in the classical discussions of the collection process.

Verification of the Completed Collection

Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه did not simply finish gathering the written material and then present an unchecked manuscript to Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه. The collection was subjected to a rigorous process of verification against the written evidence and the knowledge of the Companions before it became the established written collection.

The early scholar al-Layth ibn Sa'd رحمه الله stated that Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه was the first to compile the Qur'an and that Zayd رضي الله عنه transcribed it. He further reported that people would bring Qur'anic material to Zayd, and that he would not write a verse into the collection without two witnesses. Classical scholars discussed the precise meaning of these two witnesses, with the majority understanding them as people who could attest that the verse had been written from Muhammad ﷺ during his lifetime. ^[34]

The procedure therefore did not depend upon Zayd's personal memory alone. Zayd himself had memorised the Qur'an and had written revelation for Muhammad ﷺ, but the collection was checked against the written transmission preserved from the Prophetic period and against the Companions who had memorised and learned the Qur'an. This provided multiple forms of corroboration rather than allowing one individual's recollection to determine the written text. ^[34]

The account of the concluding verses of Surah al-Tawbah illustrates this standard. Zayd رضي الله عنه already knew the verses, yet during his search for written evidence he found the passage with Abu Khuzaymah al-Ansari رضي الله عنه and did not find the same written material with anyone else. This does not mean that Abu Khuzaymah was the only Companion who knew the verses. The Companions who had memorised the Qur'an already knew them. What Zayd was seeking was the documented written witness required for the collection. ^[35]

A further account preserved in the classical literature describes Zayd رضي الله عنه completing a review of the collection and identifying a verse of Surah al-Ahzab, Qur'an 33:23, for which he knew the wording and knew that Muhammad ﷺ had dictated it to him, yet he nevertheless declined to establish it in the written collection until another testimony was obtained. He subsequently found the written verse with Khuzaymah ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه, whose testimony Muhammad ﷺ had given the status of the testimony of two witnesses. ^[36]

The same account describes Zayd رضي الله عنه conducting another review and identifying the concluding verses of Surah al-Tawbah. He searched among the Muhajirun and Ansar for the written material and eventually obtained it from Khuzaymah رضي الله عنه. The account demonstrates that the process involved repeated checking rather than a single act of transcription. ^[37]

The completed collection was therefore not the product of Zayd's individual memory or personal judgement. It was established through the convergence of written records, memorisation and testimony from the first Muslim generation. The purpose of the process was to ensure that the written collection corresponded with the revelation that had already been transmitted and known within the community. ^[34]

Only after this process of collection and verification was completed did the resulting ṣuḥuf become the complete written collection preserved under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه. They remained with him until his death, then passed to 'Umar رضي الله عنه, and subsequently to Hafsah رضي الله عنها.

“Then the complete manuscripts of the Qur'an remained with Abu Bakr till Allah took him, then with 'Umar for the rest of his life, and then with Hafsa, the daughter of 'Umar.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4986

^[37]

The Completed Collection

After Zayd رضي الله عنه had completed the collection and the material had undergone the necessary verification, the Qur'an existed as a complete written compilation.

It had not been created by Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه, nor composed by Zayd رضي الله عنه. It had not been reconstructed from a single surviving manuscript. It was a compilation of revelation that had already been received by Muhammad ﷺ, written during his lifetime, memorised and transmitted by the Companions, and subjected to Prophetic recitation and review.

The work undertaken under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه therefore brought together into one complete written collection the forms of preservation that had already existed during the lifetime of Muhammad ﷺ. ^[38]

The Completed Ṣuḥuf and Their Custody

Once the collection had been completed and verified, the ṣuḥuf were placed in the custody of Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه.

Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه reported:

“Then the complete manuscripts of the Qur'an remained with Abu Bakr till Allah took him, then with 'Umar for the rest of his life, and then with Hafsa, the daughter of 'Umar.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4986

This establishes a continuous chain of custody from the completion of the first written collection:

Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه → 'Umar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه → Hafsah رضي الله عنها.

The ṣuḥuf therefore remained preserved after the completion of the collection. They were not discarded or replaced, but remained under the custody of the leading authorities of the Muslim community and were eventually entrusted to Hafsah رضي الله عنها. ^[39]

Personal Written Collections Were Not the Same as the Complete Ṣuḥuf

The existence of the complete collection did not mean that every Companion's earlier personal written material ceased to exist.

During Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime, Companions had written Qur'anic passages for memorisation, study and recitation. Some personal collections were incomplete, while others could differ in arrangement or contain explanatory notes and other material written alongside Qur'anic passages.

These personal writings served different purposes from the complete ṣuḥuf preserved under the authority of Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه.

Consequently, the existence of a personal collection containing additional writing cannot by itself be regarded as evidence of an alternative Qur'anic text. A personal collection must be examined according to what its owner intended it to contain and according to the nature of the material recorded in it. ^[40]

Personal Notes and Non-Qur'anic Material

Early written collections could contain material that was not part of the Qur'an itself.

A Companion could write an explanation of a verse, a supplication, a linguistic clarification, a pronunciation aid or another religious note alongside Qur'anic passages. The presence of such material on the same physical document did not transform it into Qur'anic revelation.

The distinction between the Qur'an and other forms of religious transmission was fundamental to the first Muslim community. The Qur'an was revelation recited as Qur'an, whereas Prophetic supplications, explanations and other teachings belonged to the Sunnah or to the statements of the Companions.

This distinction is essential when evaluating reports about early personal maṣāḥif. The presence of additional words in a personal collection does not establish that those words were regarded as part of the Qur'an. ^[40]

The Qunūt Supplications and the “Missing Surahs”

One of the most frequently misunderstood examples concerns two texts known as al-Khalʿ and al-Hafd.

Early reports preserve these supplications, and some later sources refer to them using the designation “surah”. Their wording, however, is that of supplication, and the classical scholarly discussion associates them with qunūt, the supplication recited during prayer.

Their appearance in reports concerning personal written collections therefore cannot simply be interpreted as evidence that additional Qur'anic surahs existed and were subsequently removed from the Qur'an.

Classical scholars distinguished between Qur'anic revelation and supplications transmitted from Muhammad ﷺ. A supplication remains a supplication even when it is memorised, recited during prayer or written alongside Qur'anic passages.

The canonical Qur'an contains neither al-Khalʿ nor al-Hafd as surahs. The reports concerning them must therefore be understood within the broader distinction between Qur'an, Sunnah and personal devotional material. ^[41]

The Personal Mushaf of 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud رضي الله عنه

Another frequently discussed case concerns the personal Mushaf attributed to 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ud رضي الله عنه.

Reports exist concerning the absence of Surah al-Fatihah and the two final surahs, al-Falaq and al-Nas, from his personal written collection. These reports have been examined extensively by Muslim scholars and cannot simply be interpreted as evidence that Ibn Mas'ud رضي الله عنه possessed an alternative Qur'an.

Ibn Mas'ud رضي الله عنه was himself one of the foremost authorities in Qur'anic knowledge among the Companions. His personal written collection therefore cannot be treated as though it represented the complete standard by which the Muslim community determined the contents of the Qur'an.

The Qur'an was preserved through the collective transmission of the Muslim community: through memorisation, recitation, teaching and writing. The contents of an individual Companion's personal collection could not override the Qur'an known and transmitted by the wider community. ^[42]

The Abu Bakr Collection Was Preserved

By the completion of Abu Bakr's رضي الله عنه collection, the first complete written compilation of the Qur'an had been established and placed under identifiable custodianship.

The revelation had been written during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime.

The Qur'an had been memorised and transmitted by numerous Companions.

The verses had been taught and recited in their established positions.

The revelation had undergone repeated review with Jibril عليه السلام.

Zayd رضي الله عنه had gathered the existing written evidence together with the knowledge preserved by those who knew the Qur'an by heart.

The collection had been subjected to a careful process of corroboration.

The concluding verses of Surah al-Tawbah had been located in written form during this process.

The completed ṣuḥuf were then preserved by Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه, followed by 'Umar رضي الله عنه, and then Hafsah رضي الله عنها. ^[43]

The Abu Bakr stage of written preservation was therefore complete.

The historical narrative now moves to a separate stage: the circumstances that arose during the caliphate of 'Uthman ibn 'Affan رضي الله عنه, when the preserved ṣuḥuf held by Hafsah رضي الله عنها became the basis for producing and distributing standard written Mushafs throughout the expanding Muslim world.

The first complete written collection had been established under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه and was subsequently preserved by 'Umar رضي الله عنه and Hafsah رضي الله عنها. The circumstances that arose during the caliphate of 'Uthman ibn 'Affan رضي الله عنه were therefore not a second attempt to collect a lost Qur'an. They concerned the preservation of the established text in the rapidly expanding Muslim community and the prevention of disputes over its recitation. ^[44]

The Expansion of the Muslim World

During the caliphate of 'Uthman رضي الله عنه, Islam had expanded far beyond the Arabian Peninsula. Muslims from different regions, including Syria and Iraq, were now meeting one another and reciting the Qur'an according to the forms of recitation they had learned.

This expansion brought a new circumstance that had not existed on the same scale during the earliest period of Islam. Muslims who had learned the Qur'an from different Companions and in different regions began to encounter differences in recitation.

The problem was not that different Qur'ans had suddenly appeared. The concern was that Muslims were beginning to dispute over the correct manner of reciting the revelation.

Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman رضي الله عنه Raises the Alarm

The immediate circumstances are recorded in the authentic account of Anas ibn Malik رضي الله عنه.

Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman رضي الله عنه was participating in the campaigns in Armenia and Azerbaijan alongside Muslims from Syria and Iraq. He witnessed differences among them in their recitation of the Qur'an and became concerned that these disagreements could develop into a serious division within the Muslim community.

Hudhayfah رضي الله عنه therefore went to 'Uthman رضي الله عنه and said:

“O Chief of the Believers! Save this nation before they differ about the Book as the Jews and the Christians did before them.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4987

^[44]

Hudhayfah's concern prompted 'Uthman رضي الله عنه to act before differences in recitation became entrenched between the various Muslim communities. [44]

'Uthman رضي الله عنه Obtains the Ṣuḥuf of Hafsah رضي الله عنها

'Uthman رضي الله عنه did not begin the process by creating a new written Qur'an.

He knew that the complete collection made under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه was preserved with Hafsah رضي الله عنها. He therefore sent to her and requested that she send him the ṣuḥuf so that authoritative copies could be produced from them.

The request was explicit:

“Send us the manuscripts so that we may make copies of the Qur'anic materials and then return the manuscripts to you.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4987

Hafsah رضي الله عنها accordingly sent the ṣuḥuf to 'Uthman رضي الله عنه. [45]

This point is fundamental to the chronology of Qur'anic preservation. The Uthmanic project was based upon the collection already established under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه. The manuscript held by Hafsah رضي الله عنها was not discarded or replaced with a newly reconstructed text; it was brought forward as the authoritative written source from which the standard copies were prepared. ^[45]

The Committee Appointed by 'Uthman رضي الله عنه

'Uthman رضي الله عنه then appointed a committee to produce the standard copies.

The committee consisted of:

Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه

'Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr رضي الله عنه

Sa'id ibn al-'As رضي الله عنه

'Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Harith ibn Hisham رضي الله عنه

The inclusion of Zayd ibn Thabit رضي الله عنه was particularly significant. He was the same Companion who had led the original collection under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه and was therefore already intimately familiar with the written collection and the Qur'anic transmission of the first generation. ^[45]

The three others were from Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad ﷺ. 'Uthman's instructions concerning their role became particularly important when questions arose concerning the linguistic form in which the text should be written. ^[46]

The Quraysh Dialect

'Uthman رضي الله عنه instructed the three Qurayshi members of the committee:

“In case you disagree with Zaid bin Thabit on any point in the Qur'an, then write it in the dialect of Quraish, for the Qur'an was revealed in their tongue.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4987

^[46]

The instruction did not give the committee permission to change the Qur'an.

It concerned the written linguistic form where disagreement arose between the members of the committee. The Qur'an had been revealed in Arabic, and the committee was instructed to use the Qurayshi linguistic form in such circumstances.

The purpose was therefore standardisation, not composition.

The Standard Copies Were Prepared From the Existing Ṣuḥuf

The committee proceeded to produce multiple copies from the ṣuḥuf that had been preserved by Hafsah رضي الله عنها.

This is a critical distinction between the Abu Bakr and Uthmanic stages.

Under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه, dispersed written and memorised material was gathered into the first complete collection.

Under 'Uthman رضي الله عنه, that established collection was used as the basis for producing standard copies for the expanding Muslim world.

The second process therefore presupposed the existence of the first. ^[45]

The Written Copies Were Then Distributed

When the committee had completed the copies, 'Uthman رضي الله عنه returned the original ṣuḥuf to Hafsah رضي الله عنها.

He then sent a standard copy to each major Muslim province.

The authentic report states:

“When they had written many copies, 'Uthman returned the original manuscripts to Hafsa. 'Uthman sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had copied...”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4987

The objective was to establish authoritative written copies throughout the expanding Muslim world so that Muslims in different regions would have a common written reference. ^[47]

The Removal of Other Written Materials

Only after the authoritative copies had been prepared and distributed did 'Uthman رضي الله عنه order the other Qur'anic written materials to be removed from circulation.

The same authentic Hadith states:

“...and ordered that all the other Qur'anic materials, whether written in fragmentary manuscripts or whole copies, be burnt.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4987

This is the historical event behind the reports that 'Uthman رضي الله عنه ordered Qur'anic manuscripts to be burned. The context is essential.

The authoritative collection used for the standardisation was preserved.

The original ṣuḥuf were returned to Hafsah رضي الله عنها.

Authoritative copies were distributed to the provinces.

Other written materials were then removed so that private copies, fragments and other written collections would not continue to serve as competing public textual authorities at a time when differences in recitation were already causing disputes. ^[47]

The burning therefore occurred after the standard copies had been established, not as an attempt to destroy the Qur'an and replace it with another text.

Written manuscripts represent only one dimension of Qur'anic preservation. From the earliest Muslim community, the Qur'an was also preserved through memorisation, recitation and direct instruction. This created a living chain of transmission in which the Qur'an was learned from a teacher, recited back to that teacher, corrected, memorised and then transmitted to the next generation.

Hifz and the Preservation of the Qur'an in Human Memory

The complete memorisation of the Qur'an is known as hifz, and a person who has memorised the entire Qur'an is known as a hafiz. The practice originates in the earliest Muslim community. Muhammad ﷺ himself memorised the revelation, taught it to his Companions, and recited it with them. The Companions subsequently taught it to the generation that followed them, and the practice continued through successive generations.

The Qur'an itself describes its memorisation and remembrance as something Allah has made accessible:

“And We have certainly made the Qur'an easy for remembrance, so is there anyone who will be mindful?”

Qur'an 54:17

The significance is not simply that Muslims memorise selected passages. The complete Qur'an is memorised, including its 114 surahs, every verse and the precise sequence in which the verses are recited.

There is no comprehensive worldwide register capable of establishing the exact number of people who have completed hifz throughout Islamic history. The number of living huffaz today is certainly in the millions and may possibly reach almost 200 million when the enormous number of Qur'anic schools, madrasahs and private students across the Muslim world is considered, but the exact figure cannot be verified. Many institutions do not publish the number of students who complete hifz, and the historical record obviously cannot provide a complete count extending across fourteen centuries. ^[48]

The Ijāzah and the Chain of Transmission

One of the most distinctive features of the traditional Qur'anic educational system is the ijāzah. An ijāzah is an authorisation granted by a qualified teacher to a student who has demonstrated that he or she has correctly learned and recited the Qur'an according to a particular transmitted reading.

The student does not merely receive a certificate stating that the Qur'an has been memorised. In the traditional system, the student's recitation is heard directly by the teacher, corrected and examined. Once the student has demonstrated sufficient mastery, the teacher may grant an ijāzah authorising the student to transmit what was learned.

The significance becomes even greater when the ijāzah contains an isnad, or chain of transmission. The chain records the succession of teachers through whom the Qur'an was transmitted: the student received it from his teacher, that teacher received it from his teacher, and so on through successive generations until the chain reaches the early authorities of Qur'anic recitation and, through them, the Companions who learned the Qur'an from Muhammad ﷺ. ^[49]

Thus, a formally transmitted Qur'anic reading can be accompanied by a documented chain connecting the present-day reciter with the earliest Muslim generation.

The chain is not merely a genealogical list of names. The transmission involved direct learning and recitation. Each generation received the Qur'an from the preceding generation, recited it back, was corrected and then became capable of transmitting it onwards.

This system created a continuous human chain of Qur'anic transmission extending across more than fourteen centuries.

Memorisation and Correct Recitation

The purpose of hifz is therefore not simply to remember the words of the Qur'an. The student is also taught to recite them correctly.

The teacher listens to the student's recitation and corrects mistakes in pronunciation, articulation, vowel sounds, pauses, continuation, and the established rules of recitation. In formal Qur'anic transmission, the student is therefore examined through oral recitation rather than merely being tested by comparing a written manuscript.

This is particularly important because the Arabic script of the earliest Mushafs did not contain the complete system of vowel markings found in modern Qur'ans. The pronunciation was preserved through the oral tradition alongside the written rasm. The later development of written diacritical marks assisted readers but did not create the original pronunciation.

The oral and written forms therefore operated together: the written Mushaf preserved the consonantal text, while teachers and students preserved its transmitted pronunciation through recitation.

The Qur'an Can Be Memorised Without Understanding Arabic

An unusual characteristic of Qur'anic memorisation is the extent to which it crosses linguistic and cultural boundaries.

A person does not have to be an Arab, nor even understand the Arabic language, to memorise the entire Qur'an. A student who does not understand Arabic can learn the Arabic script and pronunciation, listen to a qualified teacher, repeat the recitation, receive correction and eventually memorise the entire Arabic text.

This does not mean that understanding is unnecessary for Islamic scholarship. Understanding the Qur'an requires Arabic linguistic knowledge, tafsir and familiarity with the circumstances and sciences surrounding revelation. Memorisation is a different discipline: it preserves the precise Arabic wording through repeated recitation.

The result is that the Qur'an can be preserved in the memories of people whose native languages may be Indonesian, Malay, Urdu, Bengali, Turkish, Persian, Swahili, English, Afrikaans or any of hundreds of other languages.

This provides a remarkable geographical dimension to its preservation. The people preserving the Arabic text do not have to live in Arabia, nor do they have to speak Arabic as their first language.

Transmission Beyond Arabia

As Islam spread beyond Arabia, Qur'anic memorisation travelled with Muslim teachers, scholars, merchants, migrants and communities throughout Africa, Asia, Europe and other parts of the world.

The historical record of the Cape provides an especially striking example.

Among the Muslims brought to the Cape during the period of Dutch colonial rule was Imam 'Abdullah ibn Qadi Abdus Salaam, widely known as Tuan Guru. Born in Tidore in 1712, he was brought to the Cape as a political prisoner in 1780 and imprisoned on Robben Island. He was a hafiz al-Qur'an. While imprisoned, he wrote copies of the Qur'an from memory. ^[50]

The historical record preserves his handwritten Qur'anic manuscripts, providing a tangible example of the relationship between memorisation and written preservation. Tuan Guru first possessed the Qur'an in his memory and was then able to reproduce the complete text in writing even while living far from the centres of Islamic scholarship from which he had originally learned it. ^[51]

Tuan Guru and the Qur'an in Cape Town

Tuan Guru's experience is particularly significant because he was not writing in an established Islamic centre supplied with large libraries of printed Qur'ans.

He was an imprisoned Muslim scholar at the southern extremity of the Muslim world, separated from his homeland and living under colonial authority.

Nevertheless, he possessed the entire Qur'an in his memory.

He was able to reproduce it in writing, and the manuscript tradition associated with him has survived in Cape Town. Research into the Cape manuscripts has identified several Qur'anic manuscripts attributed to Tuan Guru. The most renowned is the complete manuscript discovered in the ceiling of Auwal Masjid in 1982, although its final page is seriously damaged. Oral tradition identifies it as a Qur'an written by Tuan Guru from memory, and its handwriting is consistent with other manuscripts associated with him. ^[52]

The Auwal Masjid itself records that Tuan Guru, while imprisoned on Robben Island, wrote several copies of the Qur'an from memory and that his handwritten Qur'an was later compared with imported printed copies and found to contain very few errors. ^[53]

From One Teacher to the Next

The significance of such examples becomes clearer when the wider educational system is considered.

A student who memorises the Qur'an does not ordinarily learn it by copying an unfamiliar Arabic book in isolation. The student recites before a teacher. The teacher listens, identifies mistakes and corrects them. The student repeats the passage until the wording and pronunciation are established.

The teacher was previously a student.

That teacher had a teacher.

That teacher had a teacher before him.

Through the system of ijāzah and isnad, these successive links can be documented. A student's teacher identifies the person from whom he received the Qur'an; that teacher identifies his teacher; and the chain continues through generations of recognised reciters until it reaches the early authorities and ultimately the Companions who learned directly from Muhammad ﷺ. ^[54]

The importance of this system is that the Qur'an is not simply claimed to have been transmitted through an anonymous population. In formal transmission, individual teachers and students can be identified, and the chain through which a particular reading was received can be documented.

The chain consequently provides a historical link between a present-day student and the earliest generation of Islam.

A Distributed Form of Preservation

The geographical distribution of huffaz has an important consequence.

If a particular Qur'anic manuscript were destroyed, the Qur'an would not have to be reconstructed from that manuscript alone. The complete text could be written again from the memories of qualified memorizers.

The same principle operates across countries and generations.

A hafiz in Cape Town can reproduce the Qur'an from memory.

A hafiz in Cairo can reproduce it.

A hafiz in Istanbul can reproduce it.

A hafiz in Jakarta can reproduce it.

A hafiz in Lagos, Johannesburg, London, Delhi or Kuala Lumpur can reproduce it.

The physical distance between these communities does not prevent them from preserving the same Arabic text.

This creates a form of preservation in which the written Mushaf and the human memory continually provide means of checking one another.

The Written Qur'an and the Qur'an Preserved in Memory

The history of Qur'anic preservation should therefore not be reduced to manuscripts alone.

From the beginning, the Qur'an existed simultaneously as:

revelation received by Muhammad ﷺ;

recitation taught and transmitted orally;

memorisation preserved in the hearts of the Companions and subsequent generations;

written passages recorded during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime;

the complete collection established under Abu Bakr رضي الله عنه;

the standard written copies prepared under 'Uthman رضي الله عنه;

and the continuing oral transmission of the Qur'an through successive generations of teachers and students.

These forms of preservation reinforce one another.

The manuscript provides the written form.

The memoriser provides the oral form.

The teacher provides direct correction.

The ijāzah and isnad provide documented chains of transmission.

The wider community provides repeated transmission.

The result is a preservation system distributed across people, places and generations rather than concentrated in a single physical object.

The Significance of Tuan Guru's Manuscript

The story of Tuan Guru illustrates this principle on a human scale.

A Muslim scholar was removed from his homeland, transported to the Cape, imprisoned on Robben Island and separated from the established centres of Islamic learning.

Yet he retained the Qur'an in his memory.

He was then able to reproduce it in writing.

After his release, he established a madrasah in Cape Town in 1793, where Qur'anic and Arabic education was provided to the local Muslim community, including enslaved and free Black Muslims. His school became an important centre of Islamic learning at the Cape. ^[55]

The Qur'an therefore travelled with people even when books could not.

A person could be displaced, imprisoned, enslaved or transported to another continent, yet still carry the complete Arabic text in his memory and teach it to others.

This is one of the reasons memorisation has remained central to Qur'anic preservation throughout Islamic history.

A Tradition That Continues Every Generation

More than fourteen centuries after Muhammad ﷺ, the process remains active.

Children and adults continue to learn the Qur'an from teachers.

They memorise it verse by verse.

They recite what they have memorised before their teachers.

Their teachers correct their pronunciation and recitation.

Those who complete the required standard may receive formal ijāzah in the relevant tradition of recitation.

They then become teachers themselves.

The preservation is consequently not merely a historical event that occurred in the seventh century. It is a continuing transmission from one generation to the next.

The manuscripts preserved in museums, libraries and private collections are therefore only one part of a much larger historical phenomenon. The Qur'an has simultaneously been preserved as a physical written text and as a continuously recited and memorised text.

The Seven Aḥruf and the Origin of Authorised Recitation

The Qur'an was revealed to Muhammad ﷺ in Arabic, but its revelation was not restricted to a single manner of pronunciation or recitation. The authentic Sunnah records that Allah permitted the Qur'an to be recited in seven aḥruf. The singular of aḥruf is ḥarf, and the precise technical meaning of the seven aḥruf became the subject of extensive discussion among the classical scholars of Qur'anic sciences.

What is established beyond doubt from the authentic Hadith is that Muhammad ﷺ was taught more than one authorised manner of reciting the Qur'an and that these variations originated with the revelation itself rather than being created by later Muslims.

Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما reported that Muhammad ﷺ said:

“Jibril taught me to recite in one style. I kept asking him to give me more, until he reached seven modes.”

Sahih Muslim 819a

^[56]

The same event is recorded in Sahih al-Bukhari:

“Gabriel recited the Qur'an to me in one way. Then I requested him to recite it in another way, and continued asking him to recite it in other ways, and he recited it in several ways till he ultimately recited it in seven different ways.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4991

^[57]

These reports establish an important principle concerning Qur'anic recitation. The authorised variations were not the result of later scribes changing the Qur'an, nor were they created by different Muslim communities after Muhammad's ﷺ death. They were taught to Muhammad ﷺ through Jibril عليه السلام as part of the revelation itself.

The Incident of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab and Hisham ibn Hakim

One of the clearest demonstrations of this principle occurred during the lifetime of Muhammad ﷺ.

'Umar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه was listening to Hisham ibn Hakim رضي الله عنه reciting Surah al-Furqan. 'Umar noticed that Hisham was reciting the surah in a manner different from the manner in which Muhammad ﷺ had taught 'Umar.

'Umar رضي الله عنه initially believed that Hisham was reciting incorrectly. He waited until Hisham had completed his prayer and then confronted him, asking who had taught him the recitation.

Hisham رضي الله عنه replied that Muhammad ﷺ had taught it to him.

'Umar رضي الله عنه, knowing that Muhammad ﷺ had taught him the same surah differently, brought Hisham before the Prophet ﷺ so that the matter could be settled directly by the source of the revelation.

Muhammad ﷺ instructed Hisham to recite.

Hisham recited the manner in which 'Umar had heard him reciting.

Muhammad ﷺ then confirmed:

“It was revealed in this way.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4992

^[58]

Muhammad ﷺ then asked 'Umar رضي الله عنه to recite the surah in the manner in which he had been taught.

'Umar recited his own manner of recitation.

Muhammad ﷺ again confirmed:

“It was revealed in this way.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4992

^[59]

Muhammad ﷺ then explained the broader principle:

“This Qur'an has been revealed to be recited in seven different ways, so recite of it whichever is easier for you.”

Sahih al-Bukhari 4992

^[60]

The importance of this incident is considerable. Two Companions were reciting the same Qur'anic surah differently. Neither had invented his reading, and neither was accused by Muhammad ﷺ of corrupting the revelation. Instead, Muhammad ﷺ confirmed that both manners had been revealed.

The Variations Were Granted as a Facilitation

The Hadith therefore presents the seven aḥruf as a concession granted by Allah to facilitate the recitation of the Qur'an.

This becomes particularly clear from another narration concerning Ubayy ibn Ka'b رضي الله عنه. He described hearing two people reciting the Qur'an in different manners and initially objecting to the difference. When the matter was brought before Muhammad ﷺ, he approved their recitations. Ubayy رضي الله عنه then described the unease he had felt upon hearing the difference, because each person appeared to be reciting differently. Muhammad ﷺ nevertheless confirmed the legitimacy of the recitations.

^[61]

The purpose was therefore not to create competing versions of the Qur'an. The authorised variations provided flexibility in recitation while preserving the revelation transmitted by Muhammad ﷺ.

The Seven Aḥruf and the Meaning of the Revelation

Another narration provides an important indication concerning the relationship between these variations and the message of the Qur'an.

Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما reported that Muhammad ﷺ continued requesting additional forms of recitation from Jibril عليه السلام until seven were granted. The narration then records the statement of Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri رحمه الله that these seven aḥruf concerned matters in which the underlying command was one and there was no contradiction concerning what was lawful and unlawful.

^[62]

The authorised forms of recitation therefore did not constitute seven contradictory messages. The variations belonged within the revelation permitted by Allah.

This is important when considering the later development of Qur'anic recitation. A difference in pronunciation, wording or grammatical form must first be established as an authorised transmitted reading before it can be considered part of the Qur'anic recitational tradition. An arbitrary change introduced by a later reader is not a qirāʾah merely because it produces an intelligible Arabic expression.

From the Seven Aḥruf to the Science of Qirāʾāt

The seven aḥruf belong to the period of revelation itself. The technical discipline known as qirāʾāt, however, developed through the transmission of Qur'anic recitation from Muhammad ﷺ to the Companions, from the Companions to the Tābiʿūn, and subsequently through generations of recognised Qur'anic reciters.

The two concepts must therefore be distinguished.

The aḥruf are the authorised forms of revelation referred to in the Prophetic Hadith.

The qirāʾāt are the transmitted systems of Qur'anic recitation that were subsequently preserved, taught, examined and transmitted through recognised chains of authorities.

The later terminology should not be projected backwards in a way that makes the seven aḥruf and the later “Seven Qirāʾāt” synonymous. The historical development of the qirāʾāt belongs to the generations after the Companions and will be examined in the subsequent parts of this discussion.

The revelation of the Qur'an took place within a society in which Arabic was spoken by numerous tribes, each possessing its own linguistic characteristics, pronunciation and customary expressions. The Qur'an was revealed in Arabic, but Allah did not require every Arab community to abandon the linguistic forms with which it had grown up in order to recite His revelation.

The Hadith of Ubayy ibn Ka'b رضي الله عنه provides a direct account of this facilitation. Muhammad ﷺ was initially instructed to have his people recite the Qur'an in one ḥarf. He asked Allah for greater ease for his community. The instruction was then expanded, first to two and subsequently to three, until Muhammad ﷺ was told that the Qur'an had been revealed in seven aḥruf and that whichever of these authorised forms a person recited, he was correct.^[63]

Ubayy رضي الله عنه reported:

“Allah has commanded you that you should recite the Qur'an to your people in one dialect.”

Sahih Muslim 821a

The narration continues by describing Muhammad's ﷺ repeated requests for greater ease for his people until Jibril عليه السلام conveyed that the Qur'an had been revealed in seven aḥruf. ^[64]

This provides an important context for understanding the purpose of the seven aḥruf. The revelation was being transmitted to an Arab population whose members did not all speak in precisely the same manner. The authorised forms therefore provided ease in recitation while remaining within the revelation given to Muhammad ﷺ.

Arabic Dialects and Differences in Expression

The existence of different Arabic dialects did not mean that the Arabs spoke entirely different languages. They shared a common Arabic linguistic foundation while differing in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical usage and customary expressions.

The same phenomenon can be observed in other languages.

English-speaking communities in Britain, the United States, Australia, South Africa and other countries use the same underlying language while sometimes employing different words for the same object or action. An American may say “elevator”, while a British speaker commonly says “lift.” An American may say “apartment”, while a British speaker commonly says “flat.” A British speaker may say “holiday”, while an American commonly says “vacation.”

The difference in vocabulary does not mean that these speakers have different English languages or that the underlying subject has changed. The surrounding context establishes what is being discussed.

Arabic likewise possesses expressions whose usage varies according to region, tribe, context and linguistic convention.

The Importance of Context in Arabic

This becomes particularly important when examining claims about differences between Qur'anic readings.

A word cannot always be translated correctly by taking one dictionary definition in isolation and assuming that definition must apply identically in every sentence.

Arabic, like other languages, depends upon context, morphology, grammar, syntax and established usage.

A single Arabic root may generate numerous related words. A particular form of a verb may carry a meaning different from another form derived from the same root. A word may also have more than one recognised meaning, with the surrounding sentence determining which meaning is intended.

The early Muslim scholars themselves recognised the importance of understanding the linguistic usage of the Arabs when interpreting Qur'anic vocabulary.

One well-known example concerns Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما. He explained that he did not initially know the meaning of the Qur'anic word fāṭir in the expression “Originator of the heavens and the earth” until he heard two Bedouins disputing over a well and one of them used the expression faṭartu-hā in the sense of having originated or begun it. The linguistic usage of the Bedouin therefore clarified for Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما the meaning of the Qur'anic expression. ^[65]

This illustrates why an isolated dictionary lookup cannot always determine the intended meaning of a Qur'anic expression.

Different Words Can Convey the Same Meaning

The authorised variations in Qur'anic recitation must consequently be examined within the Arabic linguistic environment in which they were revealed.

A variation in wording does not automatically constitute a variation in the message.

Two Arabic expressions may differ while communicating the same underlying proposition. In other cases, an authorised variation may add a legitimate shade of meaning without contradicting the other reading.

The Hadith of the seven aḥruf itself provides the foundation for this principle. Muhammad ﷺ did not reject the Companion whose recitation differed from another Companion's recitation. He confirmed both when both had been received from him. ^[66]

The issue is therefore not whether two readings are visually or phonetically identical. The question is whether the reading is authorised by the Qur'anic transmission and whether its variation falls within the forms of recitation permitted by Allah.

The Seven Aḥruf Were Not Seven Unrelated Qur'ans

The concept of seven aḥruf should therefore not be understood as seven separate Qur'ans containing seven independent messages.

The Prophet's ﷺ explanation establishes the opposite principle. Different authorised forms were permitted within the same revelation.

This is why the Hadith of Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما states that the seven aḥruf concern the same matter and do not differ regarding what is lawful and unlawful. ^[67]

The variations therefore existed within boundaries established by revelation.

A Muslim could not simply substitute any Arabic word that appeared to him to have the same meaning and claim that the result was a Qur'anic reading. The authorised forms had to originate within the revealed transmission.

Why the Oral Tradition Is Essential

This also explains why the Qur'an cannot be studied solely through written Arabic text.

The early Arabic script did not contain the complete system of vowel notation used in modern Qur'anic manuscripts. Pronunciation was transmitted orally through teachers and students, while the written rasm provided the corresponding written framework.

A person unfamiliar with Arabic could therefore encounter a written word whose consonantal form permitted more than one possible pronunciation. The transmitted recitation determined which pronunciation belonged to the established reading.

This oral dimension was already present during the lifetime of Muhammad ﷺ. The Companions learned the Qur'an by hearing it from him, and they transmitted those recitations to subsequent generations.

The Seven Aḥruf and the Later Qirāʾāt

The seven aḥruf should therefore be understood as the foundation of authorised variation established during revelation.

The later qirāʾāt developed through the transmission and preservation of Qur'anic recitation by successive generations of recognised reciters.

The existence of different qirāʾāt is consequently not evidence that different communities independently modified the Qur'an. The historical question is whether a particular reading possesses an authentic chain of transmission and conforms to the established principles governing accepted Qur'anic readings.

This distinction becomes increasingly important as the history of Qur'anic recitation develops. The seven aḥruf belong to the revelation itself; the later classification of qirāʾāt concerns the recitational traditions through which those authorised readings were transmitted and preserved.

This video demonstrates how the Qari recites the different Qirat. Take note of the differences in each of the Qirats. 

The existence of different recitations does not mean that every variation in Arabic pronunciation or wording can be accepted as Qur'an. The science of qirāʾāt developed precisely because Muslim scholars distinguished between an authorised transmitted reading and an individual's linguistic preference, mistake or interpretation.

A person cannot simply open a Qur'an, change a vowel, substitute a word with another Arabic word of similar meaning and declare that he has produced another qirāʾah. An accepted reading must belong to the established transmission of the Qur'an.

Classical scholars therefore developed criteria for determining which readings could be accepted as Qur'anic recitation.

The Three Fundamental Conditions

Ibn al-Jazari, one of the greatest authorities in the science of Qur'anic recitation, articulated three fundamental requirements for an accepted reading.

First, the reading must conform to the Arabic language.

Second, it must conform to the written form represented by the ʿUthmanic maṣāḥif, at least in a manner permitted by their consonantal structure.

Third, it must possess a sound chain of transmission. ^[68]

These conditions are significant because they prevent an individual from creating a new reading merely because a particular pronunciation or expression is possible in Arabic.

A reading may therefore be perfectly understandable Arabic and still not be accepted as Qur'an if it lacks the required transmission.

Likewise, a reading attributed to an early scholar cannot automatically be accepted simply because that scholar was respected. The reading itself must satisfy the established requirements of Qur'anic transmission. ^[69]

The Written Rasm and the Oral Recitation

The relationship between the written rasm and the oral reading is particularly important.

The early ʿUthmanic Mushafs were written in a form of Arabic script that did not contain all the vowel marks and consonantal dots found in modern printed Qur'ans. This writing system could therefore accommodate certain authorised readings within the same basic consonantal framework.

The written text and the transmitted recitation consequently worked together.

The rasm established the written framework.

The oral transmission established how the authorised reading was to be pronounced.

The teacher transmitted the recitation to the student.

The student learned the precise form and reproduced it before the teacher.

The process prevented a reader from treating the flexibility of the early script as permission to invent arbitrary readings.

An Example: “Master” and “King”

One of the clearest examples is found in the opening chapter of the Qur'an.

In Surah al-Fatihah 1:4, the recognised readings include:

مَالِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ

Maliki yawmi d-dīn

and:

مَلِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ

Maliki yawmi d-dīn

The first is commonly translated as “Master” or “Owner of the Day of Judgment”, while the second means “King of the Day of Judgment.” Both readings are transmitted within the recognised Qur'anic reading traditions. ^[70]

The difference does not produce two contradictory descriptions of Allah.

Allah is both the Owner and the King of the Day of Judgment.

The two readings therefore provide complementary aspects of the same reality rather than competing doctrines.

A person who has learned only one reading might initially hear the other and think that a different word has been introduced. A student trained in qirāʾāt, however, recognises that both are established readings transmitted through the Qur'anic tradition.

A Second Example: Singular and Plural

Another example occurs in Qur'an 2:184.

The recognised readings differ in the expression concerning the feeding of the poor. One reading has the singular مِسْكِينٍ (miskīn), “a poor person,” while another has the plural مَسَاكِينَ (masākīn). ^[71]

The difference produces a legitimate variation in expression without creating a contradiction in the underlying instruction.

The verse concerns the compensation associated with those unable to fast, and the two readings express the provision in singular and plural forms within the transmitted recitational tradition.

The important point is that the variation was not created by a later translator or commentator. It is part of the transmitted Arabic readings.

Differences Do Not Always Mean the English Translation Will Be Identical

It is also important not to oversimplify the matter by saying that every qirāʾah produces exactly the same English translation.

Some authorised readings produce essentially the same meaning with only a difference in pronunciation.

Others produce a slightly different shade of meaning.

Others may alter a grammatical form or perspective while remaining completely compatible with the surrounding passage.

The appropriate principle is therefore not that every reading must produce identical English wording, but that the authorised readings remain within the revelation and do not constitute contradictory Qur'anic messages.

The Arabic language is capable of expressing one reality through different grammatical and lexical constructions. A skilled translator therefore considers the entire sentence and its context rather than mechanically replacing each Arabic word with a single fixed English equivalent.

Why Context Matters

This is particularly important when comparing Qur'anic readings through English.

Suppose an Arabic word has several recognised meanings. A person can search for that word in an online dictionary and find one English definition. He may then argue that a particular Qur'anic translation is incorrect because the translator selected another English meaning.

That approach does not account for Arabic syntax and context.

A qualified Arabic translator does not translate individual words in isolation. The translator examines the grammatical construction, the surrounding words, the subject and object, the verb form, the wider passage and the established meanings of the expression.

The same principle applies to qirāʾāt.

A difference between two readings must be examined within the complete Arabic construction rather than by isolating one word and assigning it the first English definition found in a dictionary.

The Reader's Ear Is Not a Test of Authenticity

This distinction explains why an untrained listener can sometimes believe that another Muslim is reciting incorrectly.

A Muslim who has memorised the Qur'an according to Ḥafṣ ʿan ʿĀṣim may have spent years hearing and repeating that particular reading. When he encounters Warsh ʿan Nāfiʿ, Qālūn ʿan Nāfiʿ or another recognised reading for the first time, he may immediately notice differences.

But familiarity with one reading does not make it the only reading.

The proper question is not:

“Does this sound like the Qur'an I learned?”

The proper question is:

“Is this an established and authorised transmission of Qur'anic recitation?”

That question is answered through the science of qirāʾāt, its chains of transmission, its linguistic requirements and its conformity with the established written tradition.

Why a Specialist Qāriʾ Is Required

This is why mastery of qirāʾāt cannot be reduced to simply becoming a hafiz.

A hafiz has memorised the Qur'an according to the reading in which he or she was taught.

A specialist qāriʾ who studies additional readings must learn precisely where those readings differ and how those differences are to be pronounced.

He must know the rules governing the particular qirāʾah, the transmitted variations within it and the conditions under which each variation is used.

The student must then recite these variations before a qualified teacher who has mastered the same tradition.

This prevents a serious danger: confusing an authentic variation with an accidental mistake.

For example, if a student who knows only Ḥafṣ hears a specialist reciting a recognised form from Warsh, the unfamiliar pronunciation may sound like an error. The specialist, however, is not improvising. He is reproducing a transmitted reading that he has studied.

The Difference Between Qirāʾāt and Personal Arabic

This also establishes an important boundary.

Arabic speakers naturally pronounce words differently according to region, upbringing and dialect. An Arabic speaker might pronounce a word in a manner common in his local dialect.

That does not make his pronunciation a Qur'anic qirāʾah.

Likewise, an Arabic scholar may know several grammatically possible ways of expressing a sentence. That does not mean that every grammatically valid expression can be substituted into the Qur'an.

The Qur'an is not preserved merely by preserving possible Arabic meanings.

It is preserved by preserving the revealed wording and its authorised recitation.

This is precisely why the chains of transmission are indispensable.

The Difference Between an Authorised Reading and a Shādh Reading

The science of qirāʾāt also recognises readings that do not satisfy the requirements for canonical Qur'anic recitation. Such readings are commonly described as shādh, meaning anomalous or irregular.

A reading may be attributed to an early Companion, scholar or reciter and nevertheless not qualify as a canonical Qur'anic reading.

This distinction is important when critics collect every reported variant found in early Islamic literature and place them together as though Muslims regarded all of them as equally valid Qur'an.

They did not.

Muslim scholars distinguished between accepted canonical readings and reports that lacked one or more of the necessary conditions. Ibn al-Jazari explicitly stated that when one of the fundamental requirements is absent, the reading is classified as weak, anomalous or invalid rather than being accepted as canonical Qur'anic recitation. ^[72]

Consequently, the mere existence of an ancient report containing different wording does not establish another Qur'an.

Its transmission and status must first be examined.

Hearing the Difference

The next stage is best understood by hearing the readings themselves.

The examples that follow will present the same Qur'anic passages in different recognised recitations. The reader will be able to hear differences in vowels, pronunciation, elongation and, in certain places, wording.

The purpose is not to conceal the differences.

The differences should be heard openly.

They should then be examined against the Arabic text, the context of the verse, the recognised reading tradition and the transmission through which that reading has reached the present generation.

Only then can the reader properly distinguish between variation within the authorised Qur'anic tradition and variation created by an individual reader or reported without sufficient authority.

The most serious criticism directed against the Qur'anic qirāʾāt is not that Muslims recite the Qur'an differently. That fact is openly acknowledged within Islamic scholarship. The more substantial claim is that these differences demonstrate the existence of multiple Arabic Qur'ans containing different words, different meanings and, consequently, different messages.

This claim must therefore be examined at the level of the actual Arabic readings rather than through general assertions.

When the recognised readings are compared, differences can indeed be found. Some concern vowels and pronunciation; others concern grammatical forms, additional letters or words, or alternative forms of the same expression. The existence of such differences is not disputed by Muslim scholarship. The question is what these differences represent and whether they constitute contradictory Qur'anic texts.

The answer requires examining the examples themselves.

“Extra Words” and the Meaning of the Difference

One frequently cited example concerns Qur'an 57:24.

In the Hafs transmission, the reading contains:

اللَّهُ هُوَ الْغَنِيُّ

Allāhu huwa al-ghaniyy

The expression may be translated as:

“Allah is the Self-Sufficient.”

The Warsh transmission reads:

اللَّهُ الْغَنِيُّ

Allāhu al-ghaniyy

which may be rendered:

“Allah, the Self-Sufficient.” ^[73]

The criticism sometimes presented is that Hafs contains an additional word, huwa, whereas Warsh does not, and that this therefore demonstrates two different Qur'anic texts.

The difference is real at the level of wording.

It does not, however, demonstrate two contradictory statements.

In Arabic, huwa is the third-person masculine pronoun, “he” or “he is”, and its presence can function grammatically in a nominal sentence. The two readings therefore express the same proposition concerning Allah's absolute self-sufficiency.

The important distinction is between acknowledging a textual difference and determining what that difference means.

The existence of an authorised additional word does not by itself establish textual corruption. The reading must be examined within the transmitted qirāʾah and the Arabic grammar of the complete expression.

Another Example: “And Hasten” and “Hasten”

A second example occurs in Qur'an 3:133.

The Hafs reading contains:

وَسَارِعُوا

wa-sāriʿū

which may be translated:

“And hasten...”

The Warsh reading is:

سَارِعُوا

sāriʿū

which may be translated:

“Hasten...” ^[74]

Here the difference concerns the presence or absence of the conjunction wa, meaning “and”.

Again, the textual difference is real.

But the difference does not produce two contradictory instructions.

“Hasten” and “and hasten” communicate the same imperative, with the conjunction connecting the command to the preceding context.

An English reader would not normally regard the two expressions as two different messages. The presence of the conjunction affects the grammatical connection of the sentence, not the underlying command.

This is an important example because it demonstrates why simply counting words is insufficient.

A critic may say:

“Version A has an extra word.”

That statement may be factually correct.

But the subsequent question must be:

What does the additional word do within the Arabic sentence?

Only then can its significance be evaluated.

A Difference in Grammatical Form

Another example frequently discussed is Qur'an 2:132.

The recognised readings include forms derived from the Arabic root و ص ي, relating to giving a bequest, instruction or charge.

One reading is associated with the form:

وَوَصَّىٰ

wa-waṣṣā

while another is:

وَأَوْصَىٰ

wa-awṣā. ^[75]

Both forms belong to recognised Arabic verbal patterns and convey the sense that Ibrahim (Abraham) عليه السلام gave instructions or charged his descendants concerning the religion.

The difference is therefore not a random substitution of one Arabic word for another.

It involves recognised Arabic morphology.

This is precisely why translating a single Arabic word through an English dictionary is insufficient for analysing a Qur'anic reading. The morphology of the Arabic verb itself contributes to the meaning.

Why the Arabic Form Matters

Arabic is a highly inflected language. Changes to a word can communicate differences in grammatical voice, tense, number, person, intensity or other aspects of meaning.

A reader who does not understand Arabic morphology may see two different forms and conclude:

“Those are two different words, therefore they are two different messages.”

That conclusion does not follow automatically.

Consider English itself.

“Teach” and “taught” are different forms of the same verb.

“Speak” and “spoke” are different forms.

“Write” and “wrote” are different forms.

“Go” and “went” are historically different forms altogether, yet English speakers recognise their grammatical relationship immediately.

Arabic possesses an even more extensive system of morphological variation.

Consequently, a serious comparison must examine the Arabic construction rather than simply place two English translations beside one another and declare that the Qur'an has contradicted itself.

When a Difference Produces a Difference in Meaning

There are also cases in which an authorised qirāʾah produces a genuine difference in meaning or emphasis.

Islamic scholarship does not need to deny this.

The relevant question is whether the meanings contradict one another.

For example, Qur'an 1:4 is read as:

مَالِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ

Māliki yawmi d-dīn

“Master/Owner of the Day of Judgment”

and:

مَلِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ

Maliki yawmi d-dīn

“King of the Day of Judgment.”

The two readings express different but compatible attributes. Allah is both the Owner and the King of the Day of Judgment. The variation therefore adds semantic richness without creating contradictory theology. ^[76]

This is an important characteristic of the Qur'anic readings: some differences are purely phonetic, some grammatical, and some contribute an additional shade of meaning. They do not thereby constitute competing revelations.

The Error of Treating Every Difference as a Contradiction

The central methodological error in many popular arguments is therefore the equation:

different wording = different message = different Qur'an.

That equation is linguistically unsound.

Different wording can produce:

• the same meaning;
• a grammatical variation;
• a difference in emphasis;
• a complementary meaning;
• or, in some cases, a slightly different semantic nuance.

The existence of a difference must therefore be established first, and its linguistic and contextual significance must then be determined.

Only after that can the theological or textual consequences be assessed.

The Importance of Translating the Complete Passage

This also explains why isolated Google translations can produce misleading comparisons.

An Arabic word searched independently may return several English definitions. A critic may select one definition and then compare it with the translation used in a Qur'an containing another reading.

But professional translation does not operate by replacing every Arabic word with the first English definition found in a dictionary.

The translator examines the complete sentence.

The translator considers the grammatical construction.

The translator considers the morphology.

The translator considers the surrounding verses.

The translator considers established Arabic usage.

The translator considers the recognised qirāʾah being translated.

The result can therefore differ from a literal dictionary substitution without the translator having manipulated the text.

The Translator Is Not Creating the Qirāʾah

This distinction is particularly important when critics accuse Muslim translators of deliberately concealing textual differences.

A translator does not decide which qirāʾah exists.

The Arabic reading already exists within the transmitted tradition.

The translator's task is to communicate its meaning in another language.

Consequently, if a translator renders two Arabic readings with similar English expressions, this does not prove that the Arabic readings were identical. Conversely, if two translators choose different English expressions, that does not prove that the Arabic texts convey contradictory messages.

Translation and textual transmission are separate questions.

The Arabic qirāʾah must first be established.

Its Arabic meaning must then be understood.

Only afterwards is the meaning translated into English.

What the Evidence Actually Demonstrates

The textual comparisons therefore establish something considerably more precise than the claim that “all Qur'ans are letter-for-letter identical in every transmitted reading.”

The canonical Qur'anic tradition contains recognised variations.

Some are differences in vowels.

Some concern pronunciation.

Some involve grammatical forms.

Some involve the presence or absence of a conjunction or pronoun.

Some involve alternative forms of a word.

Some contribute additional semantic nuance.

These differences are preserved openly within the Islamic science of qirāʾāt.

They are not discovered only by modern critics.

They are documented by Muslim scholars who have studied and transmitted these readings for centuries.

The crucial question is consequently not whether variations exist.

They do.

The crucial question is whether those variations represent corruption, contradiction or competing Qur'anic revelations.

The evidence from the recognised readings does not support that conclusion.

Instead, the variations occur within an established system of authorised recitation transmitted through recognised chains and constrained by the Arabic language and the established rasm. ^[77]

The Proper Test

The proper method of examining a claimed textual variant is therefore straightforward.

First, establish the exact Arabic readings.

Second, establish whether both readings belong to a recognised qirāʾah or riwāyah.

Third, examine the Arabic grammar and morphology.

Fourth, translate the complete expression rather than an isolated word.

Fifth, examine the surrounding context.

Sixth, determine whether the difference produces contradiction or merely variation in expression or meaning.

Finally, establish the historical transmission of the reading.

Only after all these steps have been completed can a claim that the Qur'an contains “different versions” be responsibly evaluated.

This method allows the evidence to speak for itself. It neither hides the differences nor exaggerates them.

The purpose of the authorised variations in Qur'anic recitation must be understood before their differences are evaluated. The Qur'an was revealed in Arabic to an Arabic-speaking community whose tribes possessed different linguistic usages. The Prophetic traditions describe Muhammad ﷺ requesting additional ease for his community until Allah permitted the Qur'an to be recited in seven aḥruf. The purpose was therefore facilitation within the revealed Arabic tradition, not the creation of competing books of revelation. ^[78]

This distinction becomes particularly important when the Qur'an is considered from the perspective of the modern world. The original revelation is Arabic. A Muslim who understands Arabic can hear the Qur'an in its revealed language and engage directly with its vocabulary, grammar, morphology, structure and rhetorical features. A person who does not understand Arabic necessarily requires a translation to understand its meaning.

A translation, however, is not the Qur'an itself.

It is a human rendering of the meaning of the Qur'anic Arabic into another language.

The Qur'an and Its Translation Are Not the Same Thing

This distinction is fundamental to the study of the Qur'an.

When a Muslim recites:

الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ

the Arabic recitation is the Qur'anic text.

An English rendering such as:

“All praise is for Allah—Lord of the worlds”

communicates its meaning to an English-speaking reader, but the English sentence is not itself the Qur'an.

The same applies to translations into Afrikaans, French, Urdu, Indonesian, Turkish, Swahili, Chinese or any other language.

The translator must make choices.

Arabic expressions may contain semantic associations that require several English words to communicate adequately. Conversely, a single English word may fail to encompass everything conveyed by the Arabic expression.

Different translators may therefore choose different English words while translating the same Arabic text.

This does not mean that different English Bibles constitute different revelations, nor does it mean that different English Qur'an translations constitute different Qur'ans.

Translation is interpretation of meaning; the revealed Arabic text remains the primary reference.

Why Translation Can Conceal the Nature of a Qirāʾah

This becomes even more important when translating the recognised qirāʾāt.

Suppose two authorised Arabic readings contain a difference that is meaningful in Arabic but subtle in English. One translator may use one English expression, while another translator may use another expression to communicate the same underlying idea.

The English reader may consequently see either no difference at all or a difference that appears greater than it actually is.

The opposite can also occur.

Two Arabic readings may contain a grammatical distinction that an English translator considers important enough to express differently. The resulting English sentences may then appear more different than the underlying Arabic message actually is.

The comparison must therefore begin with the Arabic.

English translations are useful for understanding the Qur'an, but they cannot be used as the primary evidence for determining whether two Arabic qirāʾāt constitute contradictory revelations.

A Concrete Example: Qur'an 57:24

This can be demonstrated using one of the examples frequently presented in discussions of Qur'anic textual variants.

In Qur'an 57:24, the Hafs reading contains:

فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ هُوَ الْغَنِيُّ الْحَمِيدُ

fa-inna Allāha huwa al-ghaniyyu al-ḥamīd

while a recognised reading transmitted through Warsh omits huwa:

فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ الْغَنِيُّ الْحَمِيدُ

fa-inna Allāha al-ghaniyyu al-ḥamīd. ^[79]

The difference is therefore real and should not be concealed.

In the first reading, the expression may be rendered:

“Indeed, Allah—He is the Self-Sufficient, the Praiseworthy.”

In the second:

“Indeed, Allah is the Self-Sufficient, the Praiseworthy.”

The English rendering makes the central point immediately apparent.

The first contains an explicit pronoun corresponding to “He”.

The second does not.

But does one reading say that Allah is Self-Sufficient while the other says that He is not?

No.

Does one command the believer to believe one thing while the other commands the opposite?

No.

Does the theological proposition change?

No.

Both readings affirm that Allah is al-Ghaniyy, the One completely free of need and dependent upon none, and al-Hamid, the Praiseworthy.

The difference is therefore a difference in the Arabic expression, not a contradiction in the message.

A Second Example: Qur'an 3:133

Another example occurs in Qur'an 3:133.

One recognised reading has:

وَسَارِعُوا

wa-sāriʿū

which may be translated:

“And hasten...”

Another recognised reading has:

سَارِعُوا

sāriʿū

which may be translated:

*“Hasten...” ^[80]

Here the difference is the conjunction وَ (wa), meaning “and”.

The first reading explicitly connects the command with what precedes it.

The second begins directly with the command.

But the instruction remains the same:

Hasten towards the forgiveness of your Lord.

There is no reading in which Allah says:

“Do this.”

and another in which Allah says:

“Do the opposite.”

The grammatical form differs, but the instruction remains intact.

This is precisely why textual criticism cannot stop at counting letters or words. The linguistic function of the difference must be understood.

A Difference in Meaning Does Not Necessarily Mean a Difference in Message

The strongest examples are not necessarily those in which the English translations become identical.

Some recognised readings genuinely provide a different shade of meaning.

Qur'an 1:4 illustrates this clearly.

One recognised reading is:

مَالِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ

Māliki yawmi d-dīn

“Master” or “Owner of the Day of Judgment.”

Another is:

مَلِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ

Maliki yawmi d-dīn

“King of the Day of Judgment.” ^[81]

These are not identical meanings.

But they are not contradictory meanings.

Allah is the Owner of the Day of Judgment and the King of the Day of Judgment.

The two readings therefore provide complementary descriptions of the same reality.

The difference enriches the expression rather than creating competing theology.

The Correct Test for a Claimed Contradiction

This gives us a simple test for evaluating claims about Qur'anic variants.

If one authorised reading said:

“Give charity.”

while another said:

“Do not give charity.”

that would constitute a contradiction requiring serious explanation.

If one reading said:

“Allah is One.”

while another said:

“Allah is three.”

that would constitute a contradiction.

If one reading said:

“Pray.”

while another said:

“Do not pray.”

that would constitute a contradiction.

But if one reading says:

“Allah is the Owner of the Day of Judgment,”

and another says:

“Allah is the King of the Day of Judgment,”

there is no contradiction.

If one says:

“Hasten,”

and another says:

“And hasten,”

there is no contradiction.

If one says:

“Allah, He is the Self-Sufficient,”

and another says:

“Allah is the Self-Sufficient,”

there is no contradiction.

The proper question is therefore not simply:

“Are the words different?”

The proper question is:

“Do the authorised readings contradict the message?”

The Message Must Be Examined in Its Entire Context

This is also why isolated words can be misleading.

Arabic meaning is determined through morphology, grammar, syntax and context. A word cannot always be understood adequately by searching for its English equivalent in a dictionary and then inserting that definition into the Qur'an.

The same principle applies to the qirāʾāt.

A critic may isolate a single word from one reading, find several English definitions, select one, and then compare it with a translation of another reading.

That procedure can manufacture an apparent difference that does not exist in the complete Arabic passage.

The correct method is to examine the entire expression, determine the grammatical function of the variant and then ask what the passage communicates as a whole.

The Complexity of Arabic and the Limits of English

Arabic possesses linguistic features that cannot always be reproduced precisely in English.

A single Arabic form can communicate grammatical information that requires several English words to explain.

An Arabic expression may also contain rhetorical associations that have no single English equivalent.

The translator must therefore make interpretive decisions.

This is not a defect peculiar to Qur'anic translation. It is an unavoidable feature of translating any ancient and linguistically sophisticated text.

Consequently, two qualified translators can translate the same Arabic passage differently while both accurately communicating its intended meaning.

The existence of different English translations therefore cannot establish that the Arabic Qur'an itself contains contradictory messages.

Why Muslims Recite the Qur'an in Arabic

This distinction also explains why the Qur'an occupies a unique position in Muslim worship.

Muslims throughout the world may use translations to understand the Qur'an in their own languages, but the Qur'an recited as Qur'an remains the Arabic revelation.

A Muslim in Cape Town, Cairo, Jakarta or London can recite the same Arabic Qur'anic passage.

The person may not understand every word.

He may require an English, Afrikaans, Indonesian or French translation to understand the meaning.

But the Arabic words being recited remain the transmitted revelation.

The translation supplies understanding; it does not replace the Arabic revelation.

This is why Muslims learn to recite the Arabic Qur'an even when Arabic is not their native language.

The Purpose Is the Message, Not the Construction of a Catalogue of Differences

The ultimate purpose of the Qur'an is not to provide critics with a catalogue of linguistic differences to compare.

It is revelation from Allah intended to guide humanity.

The Qur'an itself repeatedly describes its purpose in terms of guidance, remembrance, warning and instruction.

Consequently, when the recognised readings are examined, the central question should remain what Allah is communicating to humanity through the revelation.

The existence of an authorised difference in pronunciation or wording does not by itself undermine that purpose.

The relevant question is whether the difference changes the divine instruction.

Where one reading says, in substance, “Hasten towards the forgiveness of your Lord,” and another authorised reading communicates the same command through a slightly different grammatical form, the purpose of the revelation remains intact.

Where one reading describes Allah as Owner and another as King of the Day of Judgment, the message remains compatible.

Where one reading contains an explicit pronoun and another does not, the theological statement remains unchanged.

The Methodological Error in the “Different Qur'ans” Argument

The fundamental methodological error occurs when the following distinctions are collapsed into one:

Qur'anic revelation

authorised Arabic qirāʾāt

transmission routes

English translations

and individual interpretations.

They are not the same thing.

A qirāʾah is an authorised Arabic recitation.

A riwāyah is a transmission of that reading.

A ṭarīq is a further transmission route.

A translation is a human rendering of the Arabic meaning.

An interpretation is an attempt to explain what the text means.

None of these categories should be counted as though each represents another Qur'an.

The recognised qirāʾāt themselves are subject to established criteria concerning transmission, Arabic linguistic validity and conformity with the ʿUthmanic rasm. Readings that fail these conditions are not simply added to the canonical Qur'an. ^[82]

The Evidence Must Be Allowed to Speak for Itself

The existence of textual variation within the authorised qirāʾāt should therefore neither be denied nor exaggerated.

The variations are real.

The Islamic tradition preserves them openly.

The scholars of qirāʾāt identify them, teach them and transmit them.

Some affect pronunciation.

Some affect grammar.

Some affect individual words.

Some provide additional shades of meaning.

But a textual difference is not automatically a contradictory message.

The decisive test is whether the readings produce mutually exclusive claims or instructions.

When the actual examples are examined in their Arabic context, the recognised readings do not establish a collection of competing Qur'anic messages. They demonstrate authorised variation within the Qur'anic recitational tradition.

The critic who wishes to establish the existence of “different Qur'ans” must therefore do more than identify a different word.

He must demonstrate that the difference represents an unauthorised reading, or that two authenticated readings communicate contradictory revelations.

Where the evidence instead demonstrates complementary meanings, grammatical variation or different expressions conveying the same divine instruction, the claim of contradictory Qur'ans has not been established.