What is the Quran?
The Qur'an is the central scripture of Islam and, according to Islamic belief, the revealed speech of Allah conveyed to the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ through the angel Jibril (Gabriel) عليه السلام. Muslims therefore distinguish between the Qur'an itself and the Hadith literature. The Qur'an is understood to be the revelation of Allah, whereas the Hadith preserve reports concerning the Prophet's ﷺ words, actions, approvals, circumstances and experiences.
The Qur'an repeatedly identifies its source as Allah and its transmission as revelation:
Indeed, this is a revelation from the Lord of the worlds. The Trustworthy Spirit has brought it down upon your heart, ˹O Prophet˺—so that you may be one of the warners—in a clear Arabic tongue.
Qur'an 26:192–195
The “Trustworthy Spirit” is identified elsewhere with Jibril عليه السلام:
Say, “Whoever is an enemy of Gabriel should know that he revealed this ˹Qur'an˺ to your heart by Allah's Will, confirming what came before it, a guide and good news for the believers.”
Qur'an 2:97
The Qur'an therefore presents a defined process of revelation: Allah is the source, Jibril عليه السلام is the messenger through whom the revelation is brought, and Muhammad ﷺ is the Prophet to whom it is delivered.
This distinction is important when considering the historical question of the Qur'an's origin. The Islamic claim is not that Muhammad ﷺ gradually composed a religious book from ideas available in his environment. The claim is that he received revelation over the course of his prophetic mission and conveyed what was revealed to him.
The Qur'an itself also makes a strong distinction between the Prophet's ﷺ role and the content he received:
He does not speak from his own desire. It is only a revelation sent down ˹to him˺.
Qur'an 53:3–4
In its immediate context, this passage concerns the Prophet's ﷺ conveying the divine message. Islamic scholars have therefore understood it as establishing the divine authority of his prophetic proclamation, while distinguishing revelation from his ordinary human speech.
The Qur'an was not revealed as one complete book on a single occasion. It was revealed progressively over approximately twenty-three years, beginning in Makkah and continuing through the later Medinan period. Individual passages were revealed in response to particular circumstances, questions, events and developments in the Prophet's ﷺ mission. The study of those circumstances is known as Asbāb al-Nuzūl, or the occasions of revelation, which will be examined separately in this card.
Revelation
The Period Before the First Revelation
The earliest authentic accounts of revelation begin before the first Qur'anic verses were revealed.
Aisha رضي الله عنها reported that the beginning of revelation to the Messenger of Allah ﷺ was through true dreams that came to him with the clarity of daylight. Following this, solitude became beloved to him. He would withdraw to the cave of Hira, where he would spend periods in worship and reflection before returning to his family for provisions. He continued this practice until the truth came to him while he was in the cave. [1]
This detail is significant because the earliest Islamic account does not begin with Muhammad ﷺ announcing that he had composed a new scripture. It begins with a period of retreat, followed by an unexpected encounter that he himself initially found frightening and difficult to understand.
The First Encounter with Jibril
While Muhammad ﷺ was in the cave of Hira, the angel came to him and commanded him:
“Read.”
Muhammad ﷺ replied:
“I do not know how to read.”
The angel then seized him and pressed him forcefully until he reached the limit of what he could bear. The angel released him and repeated the command. Muhammad ﷺ gave the same response. The angel repeated the action for a third time and then delivered the opening revelation:
Read in the Name of your Lord Who created—created humanity from a clinging clot. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous—Who taught by the pen—taught humanity what they knew not.
Qur'an 96:1–5
Aisha's account states that Muhammad ﷺ returned from the cave with the revelation and with his heart beating intensely. He went to Khadijah رضي الله عنها and said:
“Cover me! Cover me!”
His family covered him until his fear subsided. He then told Khadijah رضي الله عنها what had happened and said that he feared something might happen to him. [1]
The account is important because Muhammad ﷺ does not initially describe the experience as something he had deliberately sought or engineered. His immediate reaction, as preserved in the earliest major Hadith collection, is fear and uncertainty.
Jibril Identifies Himself
The first encounter did not end with the revelation of Qur'an 96:1–5.
In the traditional account of the events immediately following the first revelation, Muhammad ﷺ left the cave and subsequently encountered the angel again in a manner that made the identity of the messenger unmistakable. The angel addressed him as Muhammad and identified himself as Jibril, declaring that Muhammad ﷺ was the Messenger of Allah.
This particular detail is preserved in the early Sīrah tradition associated with Ibn Ishaq and transmitted by later historians including Ibn Hisham and al-Tabari. It is important to distinguish this report from the shorter account preserved in Sahih al-Bukhari, which records the initial encounter and the command to read but does not include this particular statement in that narration. The early biographical tradition therefore supplies additional detail rather than something that should simply be inserted into the Bukhari wording as though it were part of the same Hadith. [2]
The identification of the messenger is significant when considering the later Christian objection that Muhammad ﷺ could not have known who had appeared to him. The Islamic historical tradition does not leave the messenger permanently anonymous. Jibril is repeatedly identified throughout the Qur'an and Hadith as the angel who brought revelation to Muhammad ﷺ.
The Qur'an itself subsequently names Jibril directly:
Whoever is an enemy of Gabriel should know that he revealed this ˹Qur'an˺ to your heart by Allah's Will...
Qur'an 2:97
And the Qur'an describes the messenger of revelation as the Trustworthy Spirit:
The Trustworthy Spirit has brought it down upon your heart.
Qur'an 26:193–194
The identity of Jibril is therefore not dependent upon Muhammad ﷺ simply deciding, years later, that the being he encountered must have been an angel. The Islamic sources consistently identify the messenger as Jibril, both in the Qur'an and in the Hadith tradition.
Khadijah's Response
Khadijah رضي الله عنها did not dismiss Muhammad's ﷺ account or encourage him to conceal it. Instead, she reassured him and reminded him of his character and conduct:
“By Allah, Allah will never disgrace you. You maintain ties of kinship, speak the truth, assist the poor, support the needy, honour your guests and help those afflicted by calamity.”[1]
She then took him to her cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal.
Waraqah ibn Nawfal
Waraqah ibn Nawfal is particularly important because his role is sometimes misunderstood in discussions concerning the origin of the Qur'an.
The authentic account in Sahih al-Bukhari identifies Waraqah as a relative of Khadijah رضي الله عنها who had become a Christian during the pre-Islamic period. He had studied scripture and could write in Hebrew. The narration states that he would write from the Gospel in Hebrew as much as Allah had willed for him. By the time Muhammad ﷺ met him, Waraqah was elderly and had lost his eyesight. [1]
Khadijah رضي الله عنها brought Muhammad ﷺ to Waraqah and asked him to listen to what had happened.
Waraqah did not tell Muhammad ﷺ that he had invented the experience. He identified what Muhammad ﷺ had described as the same heavenly messenger who had come to Musa (Moses) عليه السلام. He used the term Namus, referring to the angel entrusted with divine revelation.
Waraqah then told Muhammad ﷺ that his people would eventually oppose and expel him:
“This is the same one who keeps the secrets whom Allah sent to Moses. I wish I were young and could live until the time when your people will drive you out.”
Muhammad ﷺ was surprised and asked:
“Will they drive me out?”
Waraqah answered that anyone who brought something similar to what Muhammad ﷺ had brought had been treated with hostility. He added that if he lived until that time, he would support Muhammad ﷺ strongly. [1]
The account contains an important chronological detail that is sometimes overlooked. Waraqah did not become Muhammad's ﷺ teacher. He did not spend years instructing Muhammad ﷺ in Christianity or dictating the Qur'an to him.
The meeting occurred after the first revelation, when Muhammad ﷺ had already experienced the encounter in Hira and had received the opening verses of Surah al-'Alaq. Waraqah's role in the account is that of a person who listened to Muhammad's description and interpreted the experience in light of his knowledge of earlier revelation.
More importantly, the same Sahih al-Bukhari narration states that Waraqah died only a few days later and that revelation subsequently paused for a period. [1]
This creates a straightforward historical problem for the claim that Muhammad ﷺ learned the Qur'an from Waraqah. Whatever one believes about the ultimate source of the Qur'an, the primary Islamic account does not describe Waraqah as Muhammad's instructor, collaborator or source over an extended period. Their recorded meeting occurred after the first revelation, and Waraqah died shortly afterwards.
Nor does the account describe Waraqah reading the Qur'an to Muhammad ﷺ or teaching him Arabic religious material that Muhammad ﷺ subsequently reproduced. Waraqah's contribution in the report is interpretive: he recognises the figure described by Muhammad ﷺ as the same type of messenger associated with Musa عليه السلام and predicts that Muhammad ﷺ will face opposition.
There is another important consideration. The Qur'an continued to be revealed for approximately twenty-three years after this encounter, covering subjects extending far beyond the circumstances of the first meeting with Waraqah. The Qur'an subsequently addresses theology, law, worship, ethics, warfare, family relations, previous prophets and communities, social regulations and numerous events occurring during Muhammad's ﷺ own lifetime. The claim that Waraqah supplied the Qur'an therefore requires considerably more historical evidence than the mere fact that he was a Christian relative of Khadijah رضي الله عنها who had studied scripture.
The evidence actually available in the earliest Islamic account is much narrower: Waraqah heard the account of the first revelation, recognised the messenger described by Muhammad ﷺ as the same heavenly messenger associated with Musa عليه السلام, predicted opposition to Muhammad ﷺ and died shortly afterwards. [1]
This does not by itself constitute a complete historical argument concerning every possible theory of Qur'anic origins. It does, however, demonstrate why the statement that “Muhammad learned the Bible from Waraqah and copied it” is not an accurate description of the evidence contained in the principal early Islamic source.
The Continuation of Revelation
After Waraqah's death, revelation temporarily ceased. The pause is known in the Islamic tradition as the fatrah or interruption of revelation.
Jabir ibn 'Abdullah رضي الله عنه reported that the Prophet ﷺ later described walking when he heard a voice from heaven. He looked upward and saw the angel who had come to him at Hira sitting between heaven and earth. Muhammad ﷺ was terrified by the sight and returned home, asking his family to cover him. Allah then revealed:
O you wrapped in garments! Rise and warn! And glorify your Lord! Purify your garments! Shun idols!
Qur'an 74:1–5
Jabir's narration states that after this, revelation continued successively. [3]
The interruption is historically significant because it demonstrates that the beginning of the Qur'an was not presented as a single continuous dictation. Revelation occurred in stages, with intervals between particular periods of revelation.
How Revelation Came
The Companions also asked Muhammad ﷺ directly about the experience of receiving revelation.
Al-Harith ibn Hisham رضي الله عنه asked:
“O Messenger of Allah, how does the revelation come to you?”
Muhammad ﷺ replied that sometimes revelation came to him like the ringing of a bell, which he described as the most difficult form for him. When the experience ended, he had retained what had been communicated. At other times, the angel came to him in the form of a man, spoke to him and he understood and retained what was said.[4]
This account is especially important because it comes from the Prophet's ﷺ own description of the experience.
Aisha رضي الله عنها added that she had personally witnessed revelation descending upon him on an extremely cold day and, when the experience ended, observed sweat pouring from his forehead. [5]
The physical effect was therefore noticeable to people around him. Revelation was not described simply as an internal thought that Muhammad ﷺ privately interpreted as divine inspiration. The Islamic sources describe identifiable episodes during which those around him observed a profound physical change.
Revelation in the Presence of Companions
Revelation also occurred when other people were present.
One report concerns an incident at Ji'ranah. The Prophet ﷺ was among his Companions when a man approached him with a question concerning the state of ihram. Muhammad ﷺ looked at him and then became silent as revelation descended upon him. 'Umar ibn al-Khattab رضي الله عنه was among those present. [5]
This is important because it demonstrates that revelation was not confined to Muhammad's ﷺ private retreats in Hira. During his prophetic mission, revelation could descend while he was travelling, teaching, answering questions or sitting among his Companions.
There were also occasions when Jibril عليه السلام appeared in human form.
Umm Salamah رضي الله عنها was present when Jibril came to the Prophet ﷺ in human form and spoke with him. After the visitor departed, the Prophet ﷺ asked Umm Salamah whether she knew who the visitor had been. She replied that she had believed him to be Dihyah al-Kalbi, a known Companion. The Prophet ﷺ informed her that the visitor had actually been Jibril. [6]
This provides an important distinction. Jibril could appear in human form without everyone present necessarily knowing that he was an angel. The Prophet ﷺ recognised him as Jibril through the revelation and divine knowledge given to him, while another person could perceive only the human appearance.
Revelation Was Preserved by the Prophet ﷺ
The Qur'an also records that Muhammad ﷺ was instructed not to rush his tongue while revelation was being delivered because of his concern to retain it:
Do not rush your tongue trying to memorize ˹a revelation of˺ the Qur'an. It is certainly upon Us to preserve and compile it ˹in your heart˺. Then once We have recited a revelation through Gabriel, follow its recitation ˹closely˺. Then it is surely upon Us to make you recite it ˹fluently˺.
Qur'an 75:16–18
Ibn 'Abbas رضي الله عنهما explained that Muhammad ﷺ would move his lips while revelation was being delivered because he was anxious to memorise it immediately. The passage reassured him that Allah would enable him to retain and recite the revelation correctly. [7]
This becomes important when the later history of Qur'anic preservation is examined. Revelation was not merely received and left undocumented until after Muhammad's ﷺ death. The sources describe a process in which revelation was received, memorised, recited and taught as it descended. The Prophet ﷺ also had Companions who learned the Qur'an directly from him.
The next parts of this card will examine the circumstances in which particular passages were revealed, the historical reports used to identify those occasions, and the doctrine of the Qur'an's Iʿjāz—its claimed inimitability.
Asbāb al-Nuzūl: The Occasions of Revelation
The Qur'an was revealed progressively over the course of Muhammad's ﷺ prophetic mission. Some passages were revealed without a specific incident being recorded as their immediate cause, while others were revealed in connection with identifiable questions, disputes, events or circumstances involving the Prophet ﷺ and his Companions.
The discipline that studies these circumstances is known as Asbāb al-Nuzūl, literally “the causes” or “occasions of revelation.” It examines the historical circumstances associated with particular Qur'anic passages and is an important component of classical Qur'anic interpretation.
Understanding these circumstances is often essential for understanding what a verse was addressing when it was first revealed. The Qur'an was not revealed in an historical vacuum. Its verses frequently addressed real people, real questions and real events.
The Hadith preserve numerous examples in which Companions remembered what had happened immediately before a particular revelation descended.
Revelation in Response to Questions
One example concerns the change of the prayer direction.
The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ and the Muslims initially prayed towards Jerusalem. According to the report of al-Bara' ibn 'Azib رضي الله عنه, the Prophet ﷺ prayed towards Jerusalem for approximately sixteen or seventeen months after arriving in Madinah, although he wished that the direction of prayer would be towards the Ka'bah in Makkah. Allah then revealed:
Indeed, We see you turning your face towards heaven. Now We will make you turn towards a direction of prayer that will please you. So turn your face towards the Sacred Mosque ˹in Makkah˺. Wherever you are, turn your faces towards it.
Qur'an 2:144
The Prophet ﷺ immediately turned towards the Ka'bah. The change was therefore not a later theological development imposed upon the Qur'an. The Hadith connects the revelation to a specific historical circumstance witnessed by the Muslim community. [8]
The event also generated questions among the Companions concerning Muslims who had died while praying towards Jerusalem before the change of direction. Allah subsequently revealed:
And Allah would never discount your previous faith. Surely Allah is Ever Gracious and Most Merciful to humanity.
Qur'an 2:143
The Companions' concern was therefore itself addressed through revelation. The historical report preserved in Sahih al-Bukhari specifically records that some Muslims had died before the change and that the community did not know what to say concerning their previous prayers. The revelation reassured them that Allah would not allow their faith to be lost. [9]
This illustrates an important characteristic of Asbāb al-Nuzūl: the circumstances surrounding a verse can explain why particular wording was revealed at a particular moment and can prevent the reader from treating the verse as though it had appeared without historical context.
Revelation in Response to Social and Legal Questions
The Qur'an also contains revelations connected with questions concerning everyday life.
The Companions asked Muhammad ﷺ about intoxicants and gambling. Allah revealed:
They ask you ˹O Prophet˺ about intoxicants and gambling. Say, “There is great evil in both, as well as some benefits for people—but the evil outweighs the benefit.”
Qur'an 2:219
The Qur'anic treatment of intoxicants did not end with this first statement. A later revelation prohibited approaching prayer while intoxicated:
O believers! Do not approach prayer while intoxicated until you are aware of what you say...
Qur'an 4:43
The final prohibition was then stated:
O believers! Intoxicants, gambling, idols, and drawing lots for decisions are all evil of satan's handiwork. So shun them so you may be successful.
Qur'an 5:90
This progression is significant when studying revelation historically. The Qur'an did not always provide the final legal ruling concerning a matter in its first mention. Some matters were addressed progressively as the Muslim community developed.
Revelation Concerning Particular Individuals
Some revelations were connected with the circumstances of specific individuals.
One of the most notable examples concerns Khawlah bint Tha'labah رضي الله عنها, whose husband had pronounced a pre-Islamic form of marital repudiation known as ẓihār. She appealed to the Prophet ﷺ concerning her situation and disputed with him concerning the matter.
Allah then revealed:
Indeed, Allah has heard the argument of the woman who pleaded with you ˹O Prophet˺ concerning her husband and made her complaint to Allah. And Allah hears your dialogue. Surely Allah is All-Hearing, All-Seeing.
Qur'an 58:1
The verse continues by rejecting the pre-Islamic practice and establishing the legal consequences associated with it.
The historical report is particularly significant because the verse itself begins by referring to Allah hearing the woman's complaint. The occasion therefore illustrates how a personal dispute involving an individual woman became the immediate context for a Qur'anic ruling with broader legal implications. The relevant reports are transmitted in the Hadith literature and in the classical Asbāb al-Nuzūl tradition. [10]
This example also demonstrates why historical context matters. Without knowing the circumstances, a reader encountering Qur'an 58:1 would not know that it arose from an actual woman's appeal concerning her marriage.
Revelation During Public Events
Revelation could also descend while Muhammad ﷺ was engaged with his Companions and while events were unfolding around him.
The Hadith describe occasions when revelation descended during journeys, gatherings, military campaigns, disputes and ordinary community affairs. The Companions sometimes witnessed the physical effects upon Muhammad ﷺ and subsequently learned the revealed passage directly from him.
This is an important feature of the Qur'an's historical transmission. The first audience was not reading an already completed book. They were hearing individual passages as they were revealed and learning them from the Prophet ﷺ.
The circumstances were therefore often remembered alongside the revelation itself.
Revelation Concerning the Prophet's Own Actions
Some revelations also addressed matters involving Muhammad ﷺ himself.
One example concerns the incident involving the Prophet's wives and his attempt to please them by abstaining from something Allah had permitted. Allah revealed:
O Prophet! Why do you prohibit yourself from what Allah has made lawful to you, seeking to please your wives? And Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
Qur'an 66:1
The surrounding verses continue by addressing the circumstances involving the Prophet's household.
This is historically significant because the Qur'an sometimes addressed the Prophet ﷺ himself and corrected or guided him concerning particular situations. Such passages are difficult to explain as merely general theological statements detached from the events of his life because the Qur'an itself addresses specific circumstances involving him.
Revelation Concerning the Questions of Opponents
Not all occasions of revelation originated with Muslims.
The Qur'an records questions posed to Muhammad ﷺ by opponents and by people seeking information about matters that would test his prophetic claim.
Among these were questions concerning the People of the Cave, Dhul-Qarnayn and the nature of the soul. The Qur'an records:
They ask you ˹O Prophet˺ about the soul. Say, “Its knowledge is only with my Lord, and you have been given but little knowledge.”
Qur'an 17:85
The verse provides an important example of the Qur'an's response to a question by limiting human knowledge rather than attempting to provide an exhaustive description of the soul.
Similarly, the opening of Surah al-Kahf contains the account of the People of the Cave, while the later section concerning Dhul-Qarnayn addresses another question associated with the Prophet's opponents.
The classical Asbāb al-Nuzūl literature preserves reports connecting these questions with events in Makkah. These reports must, however, be assessed according to the strength of their individual chains. Not every report found in later Asbāb al-Nuzūl compilations possesses the same level of authenticity as reports preserved in Sahih al-Bukhari or Sahih Muslim. [11]
This distinction is essential for historical study. Asbāb al-Nuzūl is not itself a single Hadith collection whose every report automatically has the same status. Scholars evaluate the chains of transmission and compare different reports before determining how confidently a particular occasion can be attributed to a verse.
Revelation and the Prophet's Immediate Response
The Hadith also show that Muhammad ﷺ sometimes awaited revelation before answering questions or making decisions concerning matters for which revelation was expected.
This is particularly significant because it demonstrates that the Prophet ﷺ did not always possess immediate information concerning matters later addressed by revelation.
The Qur'an itself records occasions when Muhammad ﷺ was instructed to say that he did not know certain matters except through what Allah revealed to him.
For example:
Say, “I am only a messenger like you. It has been revealed to me that your God is only One God. So whoever hopes for the meeting with their Lord, let them do good deeds and associate no one in the worship of their Lord.”
Qur'an 18:110
The Qur'an therefore consistently presents Muhammad ﷺ as a recipient of revelation rather than an independent source of knowledge concerning the unseen.
Why the Occasions of Revelation Matter
The study of Asbāb al-Nuzūl serves several purposes.
First, it provides historical context. A verse addressing a specific dispute, question or event can be understood more accurately when the reader knows what prompted its revelation.
Second, it helps explain the development of Qur'anic legislation. Some rulings appeared progressively rather than all at once.
Third, it helps distinguish between the immediate historical occasion and the broader meaning of a verse. A verse may have been revealed because of a particular person or event while its wording establishes a principle applicable beyond that original circumstance.
Fourth, it provides another dimension to the historical study of revelation. The Qur'an was revealed during an identifiable period of Muhammad's ﷺ life, in connection with events that were witnessed and remembered by the first Muslim community.
The Qur'an itself therefore emerged within history while, according to Islamic belief, remaining divine revelation.
This distinction is fundamental. The historical circumstances explain when and why particular verses were revealed; they do not, within Islamic theology, explain the Qur'an as a human composition. The Islamic claim remains that Allah revealed the words while the circumstances provided the occasions in which particular revelations were sent down.
The Limits of Asbāb al-Nuzūl Reports
The historical material must nevertheless be handled carefully.
Later Muslim scholars collected numerous reports concerning the circumstances of revelation. Some reports are transmitted through strong chains, some through weaker chains, and some through multiple competing accounts.
A responsible study therefore does not automatically treat every story attached to a Qur'anic verse as established historical fact.
The strongest evidence comes from reports with reliable chains, particularly those preserved in the major authentic Hadith collections. Other reports may be useful for understanding how early Muslim scholars interpreted a passage, but their historical status should be identified rather than assumed.
This distinction becomes particularly important when the Qur'an is studied in comparison with Jewish and Christian traditions. Similarities between Qur'anic narratives and earlier traditions cannot be adequately evaluated merely by placing the texts side by side. Their chronology, transmission, linguistic environment, historical circumstances and theological differences must also be examined.
The study of Asbāb al-Nuzūl therefore forms part of a larger historical investigation into how the Qur'an emerged within the life of Muhammad ﷺ and the first Muslim community.
The next subject is Iʿjāz al-Qurʾān, the doctrine of the Qur'an's inimitability. This concerns the Qur'an's own challenge to its opponents, the linguistic and literary arguments developed by Muslim scholars, and the historical question of what Muslims mean when they describe the Qur'an as miraculous.
Iʿjāz al-Qurʾān: The Miracle of Inimitability
The Islamic doctrine of Iʿjāz al-Qurʾān concerns the claim that the Qur'an possesses a quality that human beings cannot reproduce. The Arabic term iʿjāz derives from a root associated with inability or incapacity. In Qur'anic studies, it therefore refers to the claim that human beings are incapable of producing a work equivalent to the Qur'an.
The doctrine is not based upon the later assertion of Muslim scholars alone. The Qur'an itself challenges those who doubt its divine origin to produce something comparable to it.
This challenge appears in several forms, becoming progressively more limited.
Allah says:
Say, “If humans and jinn were to come together to produce the equivalent of this Qur'an, they could not produce its equal, no matter how they supported each other.”
Qur'an 17:88
The challenge is subsequently narrowed from producing an entire Qur'an to producing ten surahs:
Or do they say, “He has fabricated it!”? Say, “Then produce ten fabricated sûrahs like it and call upon whoever you can besides Allah, if what you say is true.”
Qur'an 11:13
It is narrowed further to a single surah:
Or do they say, “He has fabricated it!”? Say, “Then produce one sûrah like it and call upon whoever you can besides Allah, if what you say is true.”
Qur'an 10:38
And another passage states:
And if you are in doubt about what We have revealed to Our servant, then produce a sûrah comparable to it and call your helpers other than Allah, if what you say is true. But if you are unable to do so—and you will never be able to do so—then fear the Fire whose fuel is people and stones, prepared for the disbelievers.
Qur'an 2:23–24
These passages form the textual foundation of the doctrine of Iʿjāz. The Qur'an presents the challenge as an open test of its claimed divine origin. It does not merely tell its opponents that they should believe; it challenges them to produce comparable discourse.
The final expression is particularly significant:
“But if you are unable to do so—and you will never be able to do so...”
The Qur'an therefore presents its inability to be imitated as an inherent feature of the revelation rather than as a temporary historical circumstance.
The Challenge in Its Historical Setting
The challenge must be understood within the linguistic and cultural environment in which the Qur'an first appeared.
The Qur'an was revealed in seventh-century Arabia, where eloquence, poetry, public oratory and mastery of the Arabic language were highly valued forms of cultural expression. Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry had already developed sophisticated traditions of metre, rhyme, imagery, praise, satire, genealogy and tribal memory.
The Qur'an did not present itself simply as another example of this existing literary culture. It was recited in Arabic, but its structure did not conform straightforwardly to the established forms of classical Arabic poetry. Nor was it simply ordinary prose. Its language, rhythm, rhetorical structure and modes of expression became subjects of extensive discussion among Muslim scholars.
The Qur'an itself repeatedly emphasises that it is an Arabic revelation:
Indeed, We have sent it down as an Arabic Qur'an so that you may understand.
Qur'an 12:2
The linguistic nature of the revelation is therefore central to the original challenge. The first audience encountered the Qur'an in the language in which the challenge was issued.
This is important when discussing Iʿjāz because the doctrine cannot simply be reduced to the modern claim that “the Qur'an contains scientific facts.” Classical Muslim discussions of inimitability developed primarily around the Arabic text itself: its composition, rhetoric, syntax, semantic precision, arrangement and ability to communicate multiple layers of meaning.
The Prophet's Own Description of the Qur'an as His Miracle
The Hadith provide an important statement concerning the Qur'an's miraculous status.
Abu Hurayrah رضي الله عنه reported that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ said:
“There was no Prophet except that he was given miracles by which people believed, but what I have been given is revelation which Allah has revealed to me.”
He then expressed his hope that he would have the greatest number of followers on the Day of Resurrection. [12]
The significance of this statement is that Muhammad ﷺ distinguishes the Qur'anic revelation from the temporary physical miracles associated with previous prophets. The Prophets were given signs through which their contemporaries could recognise their mission, while Muhammad ﷺ identifies the revelation given to him as the particular miracle associated with his mission.
The Hadith therefore provides an important distinction between two categories:
miracles witnessed during the lifetime of a prophet, and
a revelation that remains available to later generations.
The Islamic claim is that the Qur'an is not merely a record of a miracle that happened in the seventh century. It is itself the continuing sign associated with Muhammad's ﷺ prophethood.
What Does “Inimitability” Mean?
The doctrine of Iʿjāz requires clarification because “no one can imitate the Qur'an” can mean several different things.
It does not mean that no human being can write Arabic.
It does not mean that nobody can write a text containing similar subjects.
It does not mean that nobody can reproduce individual Qur'anic words, expressions or grammatical constructions.
Nor does it mean that Muslims believe every Arabic sentence outside the Qur'an is inferior to every Qur'anic sentence.
The classical claim is more specific. The Qur'an's overall composition and manner of expression cannot be reproduced with an equivalent work that meets the challenge posed by the Qur'an.
This became one of the central questions of classical Arabic literary and theological scholarship.
The Development of Classical Theories of Iʿjāz
Muslim scholars did not always explain Iʿjāz in precisely the same way.
Early theological discussions included several competing explanations of why the Qur'an could not be imitated. Some scholars emphasised the extraordinary nature of the Qur'an's language and composition. Others proposed theories concerning divine intervention preventing people from meeting the challenge, a position later associated with ṣarfah. Other scholars rejected this explanation and argued that the inability lies in the Qur'an itself rather than in an external divine prevention.
One of the most influential developments came through the study of naẓm, generally translated as “composition,” “arrangement” or “structural organisation.”
The eleventh-century scholar 'Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani developed an influential theory in which the Qur'an's extraordinary quality was not attributed merely to individual words. Rather, its distinctive power was associated with the way words are arranged in relation to one another, how grammatical structures produce meaning, and how meaning emerges from the relationship between linguistic elements. Modern scholarship has identified naẓm as one of the principal classical approaches to explaining Qur'anic inimitability. [13]
This is an important distinction.
If the miracle were simply that the Qur'an contains unusual vocabulary, then another author could reproduce those individual words.
If the miracle were simply that the Qur'an discusses profound ideas, other religious and philosophical works could discuss profound ideas.
If the miracle were simply rhyme or rhythm, other Arabic compositions could employ rhyme and rhythm.
The classical theory of naẓm instead locates the distinctive quality in the relationship between wording, syntax, meaning, rhetorical context and overall composition.
Al-Jurjani's work became foundational for later Islamic discussions of Arabic rhetoric and the Qur'an's literary uniqueness. Modern academic research likewise identifies his theory of naẓm as a major development in the classical understanding of Qur'anic inimitability. [13]
Why Translation Creates a Particular Difficulty
The doctrine of Iʿjāz also explains an important distinction between the Qur'an and its translations.
A translation can communicate the meaning of the Qur'an in another language. It can provide an extremely valuable representation of what the Arabic text means. But the translation is not itself the Arabic Qur'an in the linguistic sense in which the doctrine of Iʿjāz is formulated.
This is because the challenge concerns the Arabic revelation itself: its wording, structure, syntax, sound, rhetorical relationships and semantic associations.
Modern academic research has likewise noted that translation inevitably involves a loss of the specific linguistic features upon which classical theories of Qur'anic inimitability are based, particularly the structural concept of naẓm. [14]
This does not mean that the Qur'an cannot be translated. Muslims throughout history have translated its meanings into numerous languages. Rather, the translated text does not reproduce every feature of the Arabic revelation.
This distinction will become particularly important in the final card topic concerning translation versus Arabic, where the status of translations in Islamic scholarship will be examined separately.
The Qur'an's Challenge and Its Historical Opponents
The Qur'an issued its challenge in an environment in which its opponents had a strong incentive to discredit Muhammad ﷺ.
The Qur'an's opponents accused him of being a poet, a magician, a soothsayer and a fabricator. The Qur'an records several of these accusations and rejects them.
Allah says:
It is not the word of a poet—little do you believe—nor the word of a soothsayer—little do you take heed. It is a revelation from the Lord of the worlds.
Qur'an 69:41–43
The Qur'an therefore presents the dispute as partly concerning the nature and origin of the speech itself.
It is important, however, to distinguish the Qur'an's claim from what can be demonstrated through historical methodology.
The Qur'an claims that its opponents cannot produce a comparable surah.
Muslim theology accepts this challenge as evidence of divine origin.
A historian, however, must also examine the linguistic, literary and historical evidence surrounding the text rather than simply treating the theological conclusion as an independently established historical fact.
This distinction is essential for an academically balanced presentation. The doctrine of Iʿjāz is a theological claim supported by linguistic and literary arguments. Its assessment involves questions of Arabic rhetoric, literary comparison, historical context and theological assumptions.
What the Miracle of Inimitability Does Not Mean
The doctrine should also not be confused with modern claims that every scientific statement contained in the Qur'an constitutes proof of its miraculous nature.
The classical doctrine of Iʿjāz predates modern scientific discoveries by many centuries. Its principal focus was the Qur'an's language, composition, rhetoric, meaning and its challenge to those who rejected its divine origin.
This is historically important because modern discussions sometimes redefine Iʿjāz almost entirely in terms of alleged scientific predictions. Such arguments may be considered separately, but they should not be confused with the classical doctrine.
The Qur'an's own challenge is fundamentally textual:
Produce something like it.
Then:
Produce ten surahs like it.
Then:
Produce one surah like it.
The challenge concerns the Qur'an itself.
The Continuing Nature of the Claim
The doctrine of Iʿjāz therefore occupies an unusual position in Islamic theology.
It is simultaneously a claim about language, literature, revelation and prophethood.
The Qur'an presents itself as divine revelation.
It challenges its opponents to produce comparable discourse.
The Prophet ﷺ identifies the revelation given to him as the continuing miracle associated with his mission.
Muslim scholars subsequently developed sophisticated theories explaining why the Qur'an could not be reproduced, with naẓm becoming one of the most influential approaches.
The question of whether the Qur'an's linguistic and literary qualities constitute a demonstrable miracle remains ultimately connected to how one evaluates literary excellence and the theological claim underlying the challenge. Muslims regard the inability to reproduce the Qur'an as evidence of its divine origin; academic study can examine the historical development of that claim, the Arabic language in which it was made, the literary environment in which it appeared and the arguments developed by Muslim scholars to explain it.
The next card will move from the question of what the Qur'an is and how it was revealed to the question of how that revelation was preserved and transmitted: the memorisation of the Qur'an during Muhammad's ﷺ lifetime, written recording, the role of the Companions, the canonical Qirāʾāt, and the compilation of the Qur'anic text after his death.
The Qur'an's claim of inimitability is not limited to a general statement that it is beautiful or eloquent. It presents a specific challenge to those who doubt its divine origin: produce something comparable to it.
The challenge appears at several levels. The Qur'an first challenges humanity and the jinn collectively:
Say, “If humans and jinn were to come together to produce the equivalent of this Qur'an, they could not produce its equal, no matter how they supported each other.”
Qur'an 17:88
The challenge is then narrowed to ten surahs:
Or do they say, “He has fabricated it!”? Say, “Then produce ten surahs like it, fabricated, and call upon whoever you can besides Allah, if you are truthful.”
Qur'an 11:13
It is narrowed further to a single surah:
Or do they say, “He has fabricated it!”? Say, “Then produce one surah like it and call upon whoever you can besides Allah, if you are truthful.”
Qur'an 10:38
And again:
And if you are in doubt about what We have revealed to Our servant, then produce a surah like it and call your helpers other than Allah, if what you say is true. But if you are unable to do so—and you will never be able to do so—then fear the Fire whose fuel is people and stones, prepared for the disbelievers.
Qur'an 2:23–24
The challenge is therefore part of the Qur'an itself. It is not a later argument invented by Muslim scholars to defend the Qur'an after the fact.
What Was Being Challenged?
The original challenge must be understood within the linguistic environment of seventh-century Arabia.
The Qur'an was revealed in Arabic to a society in which eloquence, poetry, public speech and mastery of language were highly valued. The Qur'an itself repeatedly emphasises that it was revealed in Arabic:
Indeed, We have sent it down as an Arabic Qur'an so that you may understand.
Qur'an 12:2
The challenge therefore had a particular meaning for its first audience. They were not being asked to reproduce an unknown language or imitate a foreign literary tradition. The challenge was issued in their own language.
At the same time, the Qur'an does not describe itself simply as poetry. Its style does not conform straightforwardly to the established forms of Arabic poetry, nor is it ordinary prose. Its distinctive combination of rhythm, sound, syntax, rhetorical structures, narrative, legal discourse, theological argument and moral exhortation became one of the central subjects of later Arabic literary scholarship.
The classical Muslim understanding of Iʿjāz therefore developed around the Qur'an's composition and expression as a whole, rather than merely around individual words.
The Meaning of Naẓm
One of the most influential classical explanations was developed by the scholar 'Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani, who placed particular emphasis on naẓm, commonly translated as “composition,” “arrangement” or “organisation.”
For al-Jurjani, the extraordinary nature of the Qur'an was not simply that it contained rare vocabulary or unusually beautiful individual sentences. Its distinctive quality lay in the relationships between words, grammatical structures and meanings. The way a sentence is constructed affects the meaning produced by that sentence, and changing the arrangement can alter the rhetorical effect even when the individual words remain the same.
Al-Jurjani's Dalā'il al-Iʿjāz became one of the major works in the classical development of this theory. Modern academic scholarship has likewise identified naẓm as a central feature of al-Jurjani's explanation of Qur'anic inimitability. [15]
This distinction is important.
The claim is not simply:
“Nobody can use the same words.”
Nor is it:
“Nobody can write beautiful Arabic.”
Nor is it:
“Nobody can discuss the same subjects.”
The classical argument is that the Qur'an's distinctive linguistic construction, in which wording, grammar, meaning, rhythm and rhetorical context operate together, cannot be reproduced as an equivalent work.
The Qur'an's Miracle According to the Prophet ﷺ
The Hadith provide an important statement from Muhammad ﷺ himself concerning the nature of his miracle.
Abu Hurayrah رضي الله عنه reported that the Prophet ﷺ said:
“Every Prophet was given miracles because of which people believed, but what I have been given is Divine Inspiration which Allah has revealed to me.”
Sahih al-Bukhari 4981
The Prophet ﷺ therefore presents revelation as the particular extraordinary sign given to him. This is significant because the Qur'an was not merely a message accompanying his prophethood; the revelation itself was understood as the continuing miracle of his mission.
This also explains why Muslims have historically treated the Qur'an differently from a normal religious text. It is not simply regarded as a book containing miraculous stories or teachings. Its very revelation and form are part of the Islamic claim concerning its miraculous nature.
The Challenge and the Historical Opponents of Muhammad ﷺ
The Qur'an's challenge also needs to be understood against the accusations made against Muhammad ﷺ by his contemporaries.
The Qur'an records accusations that he was a poet, a magician or a person who had fabricated the revelation. It responds by asserting that the Qur'an is revelation from the Lord of the worlds:
It is not the word of a poet—little do you believe—nor the word of a soothsayer—little do you take heed. It is a revelation from the Lord of the worlds.
Qur'an 69:41–43
The issue was therefore not simply whether Muhammad ﷺ possessed religious knowledge. His opponents were challenging the origin of the message itself.
The Qur'an answered by placing its origin directly at issue:
If Muhammad ﷺ had fabricated it, then those who rejected him were challenged to produce something comparable.
That challenge was particularly significant because the Qur'an's opponents were not merely passive observers. They had strong reasons to oppose Muhammad ﷺ and his message. His preaching challenged existing religious practices, social structures and tribal loyalties in Makkah.
Yet the Qur'an continued to present the challenge.
Why the Challenge Matters
The challenge in Qur'an 2:23 is especially important because it does not require an opponent to reproduce the entire Qur'an.
The challenge is reduced to one surah.
This is significant because a person could otherwise argue that reproducing the entire Qur'an would be unreasonable simply because of its length. The Qur'an removes that objection by narrowing the challenge dramatically.
The question becomes whether a comparable surah can be produced.
The Qur'an then states that this will not be achieved.
Muslim scholars consequently understood the challenge as evidence that the Qur'an possesses a quality beyond ordinary human composition. The exact nature of that quality became a major subject of Islamic scholarship.
The Limits of the Claim
For an academically responsible presentation, however, an important distinction must be maintained.
The Qur'an's claim that it cannot be imitated is a theological claim.
The historical existence of the challenge is a matter of textual evidence.
The development of Muslim theories explaining the challenge is a matter of intellectual history.
The judgment that the Qur'an actually is inimitable involves literary and linguistic evaluation and, ultimately, a theological conclusion concerning the significance of that evaluation.
These should not be collapsed into one another.
A Muslim may regard the Qur'an's inimitability as decisive evidence of divine revelation. A literary scholar can examine its Arabic style, rhetoric and structure without necessarily accepting the theological conclusion. Both approaches can be studied without confusing the description of the Islamic belief with the historical analysis of the evidence.
This distinction is particularly important for DivineTruth because the objective is not to tell the reader what conclusion must be reached before examining the evidence. The reader should first understand exactly what Islam claims, why Muslims make the claim, what the primary sources say, and how Muslim scholarship developed the argument.
What Iʿjāz Does Not Originally Mean
It is also important to distinguish the classical doctrine of Iʿjāz from some modern claims about “scientific miracles” in the Qur'an.
The classical discussions of Iʿjāz developed centuries before modern science. Their principal concerns included Arabic language, rhetoric, syntax, semantic relationships, composition and literary expression.
The theory of naẓm associated with al-Jurjani is a particularly clear example. Its concern was the relationship between linguistic structure and meaning, not modern scientific discoveries. [15]
Scientific interpretation of Qur'anic verses is a separate subject and should therefore be treated separately rather than presented as though it were the original meaning of Iʿjāz.
This distinction prevents the historical doctrine from being confused with later approaches to Qur'anic interpretation.
The Qur'an as a Continuing Sign
There is also a fundamental difference between the miracles traditionally associated with earlier prophets and the Qur'an.
A physical miracle witnessed by a particular generation occurs at a particular time and place. Later generations know about it through testimony and transmitted reports.
The Qur'an, however, remains accessible in its original Arabic form to every generation.
This is why the Prophet ﷺ described the revelation given to him as the extraordinary sign associated with his mission. [16]
The Qur'an's challenge therefore remains part of the text itself.
It does not say merely that Muhammad ﷺ performed a miracle in the past.
It says, in effect, that the revelation itself can be examined.
The reader can hear it, study its Arabic, examine its structure, compare its literary form with other Arabic works and consider the historical circumstances in which it appeared.
For Muslims, this continuing accessibility is an essential part of the Qur'an's miraculous character.
From Revelation to Preservation
The four subjects examined in this first card are closely connected.
The Qur'an identifies itself as revelation from Allah.
The Hadith preserve detailed accounts of how that revelation came to Muhammad ﷺ.
The study of Asbāb al-Nuzūl places individual revelations within their historical circumstances.
The doctrine of Iʿjāz al-Qurʾān concerns the Qur'an's claim that its form and expression cannot be reproduced.
The next card therefore moves from what the Qur'an claims to be to the historical question of how the revelation was preserved and transmitted.
That examination requires looking at the Prophet's ﷺ memorisation of the revelation, the Companions who memorised it, those who wrote it down during his lifetime, the different recognised modes of recitation, and the compilation of the Qur'anic text after his death.